Food
From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
Foods from plant sources
Food is any substance[1] consumed to provide
nutritional support for the body. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains
essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The
substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells in
an effort to produce energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth.
Historically, people
secured food through two methods: hunting and gathering,
and agriculture. Today,
most of thefood
energy consumed by the world population is supplied by the food industry.
Food safety and food security are monitored by agencies
like the International Association for Food Protection, World Resources Institute, World
Food Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization, and International Food Information Council. They
address issues such as sustainability, biological
diversity, climate change, nutritional economics,population growth, water supply, and access to food.
The right to food is a human right derived from the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights(ICESCR), recognizing the "right to an
adequate standard of living, including adequate food," as well as the
"fundamental right to be free from hunger."
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Contents
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3.2 Sour
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7 Safety
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8 Diet
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13 Notes
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Food sources
Most food has its origin in
plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants; but even animals that are
used as food sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cerealgrain is a staple food that provides more food
energy worldwide than any other type of crop.Maize, wheat, and rice - in all of their varieties
- account for 87% of all grain production worldwide.[2] Most of the grain that is
produced worldwide is fed to livestock.
Some foods not from animal
or plant sources include various edible fungi, especiallymushrooms. Fungi and
ambient bacteria are used in the preparation
of fermented and pickledfoods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina.[3] Inorganic substances such
as salt, baking
soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or
chemically alter an ingredient.
Plants
Many plants or plant parts are eaten as
food. There are around 2,000 plant species which are cultivated for food, and
many have several distinct cultivars.[4]
Seeds of plants are a good source
of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients
necessary for the plant's initial growth, including many healthful fats, such
as Omega fats.
In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods.
Edible seeds include cereals (maize,wheat, rice, et cetera), legumes (beans, peas, lentils, et cetera), and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to
produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed(including canola oil), sesame, et cetera.[5]
Seeds are typically high in
unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food, although not
all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, while seeds from apples and cherries contain a poison (cyanide).
Fruits are the ripened ovaries of
plants, including the seeds within. Many plants have evolved fruits that are
attractive as a food source to animals, so that animals will eat the fruits and
excrete the seeds some distance away. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant
part of the diets of most cultures. Some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten
as vegetables.[6] (For more information, see list of fruits.)
Vegetables are a second type of plant
matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables (potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion family), leaf vegetables (spinach and lettuce), stem vegetables (bamboo shoots and asparagus), and inflorescence vegetables (globe artichokes and broccoli and other vegetables such
as cabbage or cauliflower).[7]
Animals
Animals are used as food
either directly or indirectly by the products they produce. Meat is an example of a direct
product taken from an animal, which comes from muscle systems or fromorgans. Food
products produced by animals include milk produced by mammary glands,
which in many cultures is drunk or processed into dairy products (cheese, butter, et cetera). In addition, birds and
other animals lay eggs, which are
often eaten, and bees produce honey, a reduced nectar from flowers, which is
a popular sweetener in many cultures. Some cultures consume blood,
sometimes in the form of blood sausage, as a
thickener for sauces, or in a cured, salted form for times of food
scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as jugged hare.[8]
Some cultures and people do
not consume meat or animal food products for cultural, dietary, health,
ethical, or ideological reasons. Vegetarians choose to forgo food from
animal sources to varying degrees. Vegans do not consume any foods
that are or contain ingredients from an animal source.
Production
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Most food has always been
obtained through agriculture. With
increasing concern over both the methods and products of modern industrial agriculture, there has been a growing
trend toward sustainable agricultural practices. This approach,
partly fueled by consumer demand, encourages biodiversity, local
self-reliance and organic farmingmethods.[9] Major influences on food
production include international organizations (e.g. the World Trade Organizationand Common Agricultural Policy), national government
policy (or law), and war.[10]
In popular culture, the
mass production of food, specifically meats such as chicken and beef, has come
under fire from various documentaries, most recently Food, Inc,
documenting the mass slaughter and poor treatment of animals, often for easier
revenues from large corporations.
Along with a current trend towards environmentalism, people in Western culture
have had an increasing trend towards the use of herbal supplements, foods for a
specific group of person (such as dieters, women, or athletes), functional foods (fortified foods, such as omega-3 eggs), and a more
ethnically diverse diet.[11]
Several organisations have
begun calling for a new kind of agriculture in which agroecosystems provide
food but also support vital ecosystem services so that soil fertility and
biodiversity are maintained rather than compromised. According the International Water Management Institute and UNEP, well-managed agroecosystems not only
provide food, fibre and animal products, they also provide services such as
flood mitigation, groundwater recharge, erosion control and habitats for
plants, birds fish and other animals.[12]
Taste perception
Animals, specifically
humans, have five different types of tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. As animals have evolved, the tastes
that provide the most energy (sugar and fats) are the most pleasant to eat while
others, such as bitter, are not
enjoyable.[13] Water, while important for
survival, has no taste.[14] Fats, on the other hand,
especially saturated fats, are
thicker and rich and are thus considered more enjoyable to eat.
Sweet
Structure of sucrose
Generally regarded as the
most pleasant taste, sweetness is almost always caused by
a type of simple sugar such asglucose or fructose, or disaccharides such as sucrose, a molecule
combining glucose and fructose.[15] Complex carbohydrates are
long chains and thus do not have the sweet taste. Artificial sweeteners such as sucralose are used to mimic the sugar
molecule, creating the sensation of sweet, without the calories. Other types of
sugar include raw sugar, which is
known for its amber color, as it is unprocessed. As sugar is vital for energy
and survival, the taste of sugar is pleasant.
The stevia plant contains a compound
known as steviol which, when extracted, has
300 times the sweetness of sugar while having minimal impact on blood sugar.[16]
Sour
Sourness is caused by the
taste of acids,
such as vinegar in alcoholic beverages.
Sour foods include citrus,
specifically lemons, limes, and to a
lesser degreeoranges.
Sour is evolutionarily significant as it is a sign for a food that may have
gone rancid due to bacteria.[17] Many foods, however, are
slightly acidic, and help stimulate the taste buds and enhance flavor.
Salty
Saltiness is the taste of alkali metal ions such as sodium and potassium. It is
found in almost every food in low to moderate proportions to enhance flavor,
although to eat pure salt is regarded as highly unpleasant. There are many
different types of salt, with each having a different degree of saltiness,
including sea salt, fleur de sel, kosher salt, mined
salt, and grey salt. Other than enhancing flavor, its significance is that the
body needs and maintains a delicateelectrolyte balance, which is the kidney's function. Salt may be iodized,
meaning iodine has been added to it, a
necessary nutrient that promotes thyroid function. Some canned
foods, notably soups or packaged broths, tend to be high in salt as a means of
preserving the food longer. Historically speaking, salt has been used as a meat
preservative as salt promotes water excretion, thus working as a preservative.
Similarly, dried foods also promote food safety.[18]
Bitter
Bitterness is a sensation often
considered unpleasant characterized by having a sharp, pungent taste. Dark,
unsweetened chocolate, caffeine, lemon
rind, and some types of fruit are known to be bitter.
Umami
Umami, the Japanese word for delicious, is the
least known in Western popular culture but has a long tradition in Asian
cuisine. Umami is the taste of glutamates,
especially monosodium
glutamate (MSG).[15] It is characterized as
savory, meaty, and rich in flavor. Salmon and mushrooms are foods high in umami.
Meat and other animal byproducts are described as having this taste.[citation needed]
Cuisine
Many cultures have a
recognizable cuisine, a specific set of cooking traditions using various
spices or a combination of flavors unique to that culture, which evolves over
time. Other differences include preferences (hot or cold, spicy, etc.) and
practices, the study of which is known as gastronomy. Many
cultures have diversified their foods by means of preparation, cooking methods,
and manufacturing. This also includes a complex food trade which helps the
cultures to economically survive by way of food, not just by consumption. Some
popular types of ethnic foods include Italian, French, Japanese, Chinese, American, Cajun,Thai, and Indian cuisine. Various cultures
throughout the world study the dietary analysis of food habits.
While evolutionarily speaking, as opposed to
culturally, humans are omnivores, religion
and social constructs such as morality, activism, or environmentalism will often affect which
foods they will consume. Food is eaten and typically enjoyed through the sense
of taste,
the perception of flavor from eating and drinking. Certain tastes are more
enjoyable than others, for evolutionary purposes.
Presentation
Aesthetically pleasing and
eye-appealing food presentations can encourage people to consume foods. A
common saying is that people "eat with their eyes". Food presented in
a clean and appetizing way will encourage a good flavor, even if unsatisfactory.[19][20]
Contrast
in texture
Texture plays a crucial role in the
enjoyment of eating foods. Contrasts in textures, such as something crunchy in
an otherwise smooth dish, may increase the appeal of eating it. Common examples
include adding granola to yogurt, adding croutons to a salad or soup, and toasting bread to enhance its
crunchiness for a smooth topping, such as jam or butter.[21]
Contrast
in taste
Another universal
phenomenon regarding food is the appeal of contrast in taste and presentation.
For example, such opposite flavors as sweetness and saltinesstend to go
well together, as in kettle corn and nuts.
Food
preparation
While many foods can be
eaten raw, many also undergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety, palatability, texture, or flavor. At the simplest level this may involve
washing, cutting, trimming, or adding other foods or ingredients, such as
spices. It may also involve mixing, heating or cooling, pressure cooking,
fermentation, or combination with other food. In a home, most food preparation
takes place in a kitchen.
Some preparation is done to enhance the taste or aesthetic appeal; other
preparation may help to preserve the food; others may be
involved in cultural identity. A meal is made up of food which is
prepared to be eaten at a specific time and place.[22]
A refrigerator helps to
keep foods fresh.
Animal preparation
The preparation of
animal-based food usually involves slaughter, evisceration, hanging, portioning, and rendering. In developed countries, this is usually
done outside the home in slaughterhouses,
which are used to process animals en masse for meat production. Many countries
regulate their slaughterhouses by law. For example, the United States has established the Humane
Slaughter Act of 1958, which requires that an animal be
stunned before killing. This act, like those in many countries, exempts
slaughter in accordance to religious law, such as kosher, shechita, and
dhabiĥa halal. Strict interpretations of kashrut require the animal to be
fully aware when its carotid artery is cut.[23]
On the local level, a
butcher may commonly break down larger animal meat into smaller manageable
cuts, and pre-wrap them for commercial sale or wrap them to order in butcher
paper. In addition, fish and seafood may be fabricated into
smaller cuts by a fish monger. However fish butchery may be done on board a
fishing vessel and quick-frozen for preservation of quality.[24]
Cooking
The term
"cooking" encompasses a vast range of methods, tools, and
combinations of ingredients to improve the flavor or digestibility of food.
Cooking technique, known as culinary art,
generally requires the selection, measurement, and combining of ingredients in
an ordered procedure in an effort to achieve the desired result. Constraints on
success include the variability of ingredients, ambient conditions, tools, and the skill of the individual cook.[25] The diversity of cooking
worldwide is a reflection of the myriad nutritional, aesthetic, agricultural,
economic, cultural, and religious considerations that affect it.[26]
Cooking requires applying
heat to a food which usually, though not always, chemically changes the
molecules, thus changing its flavor, texture, appearance,
and nutritional properties.[27] Cooking certain proteins,
such as egg whites, meats, and fish, denatures the protein, causing it to firm.
There is archaeological evidence of roasted foodstuffs at Homo erectus campsites dating from
420,000 years ago.[28] Boiling as a means of
cooking requires a container, and has been practiced at least since the 10th
millennium BC with the introduction of pottery.[29]
Cooking
equipment
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There are many different
types of equipment used for cooking.
Ovens are mostly hollow devices
that get very hot (up to 500 °F) and are used for baking or roasting and offer
a dry-heat cooking method. Different cuisines will use different types of
ovens; for example, Indian culture uses a Tandooroven, which
is a cylindrical clay oven which operates at a single high temperature.[30] Western kitchens use
variable temperature convection ovens,
conventional ovens, toaster ovens, or
non-radiant heat ovens like the microwave oven.
Classic Italian cuisine includes the use of a brick oven containing burning
wood. Ovens may be wood-fired, coal-fired,gas, electric, or
oil-fired.[31]
Various types of cook-tops
are used as well. They carry the same variations of fuel types as the ovens
mentioned above. Cook-tops are used to heat vessels placed on top of the heat
source, such as a sauté pan, sauce
pot, frying pan, or pressure cooker.
These pieces of equipment can use either a moist or dry cooking method and
include methods such as steaming, simmering, boiling, and poaching for moist methods, while
the dry methods includesautéing, pan frying, and deep-frying.[32]
In addition, many cultures
use grills for cooking. A grill operates with a radiant
heat source from below, usually covered with a metal grid and sometimes a
cover. An open pit barbecue in the American south is one example along with the
American style outdoor grill fueled by wood, liquid propane, or charcoal along
with soaked wood chips for smoking.[33]A Mexican style of barbecue is called barbacoa, which
involves the cooking of meats such as whole sheep over an open fire. In Argentina, an asado (Spanish for
"grilled") is prepared on a grill held over an open pit or fire made
upon the ground, on which a whole animal or smaller cuts are grilled.[34]
Raw food preparation
Certain cultures highlight
animal and vegetable foods in their raw state. Salads consisting of raw
vegetables or fruits are common in many cuisines. Sashimi in Japanese cuisine consists of raw sliced fish or other meat, and sushi often incorporates raw fish
or seafood. Steak tartare and salmon tartare are
dishes made from diced or ground raw beef or salmon, mixed with various
ingredients and served with baguettes, brioche, or frites.[35] In Italy, carpaccio is a dish of very thinly
sliced raw beef,
drizzled with a vinaigrette made with olive oil.[36] The health food movement
known as raw foodism promotes a mostly vegan diet of raw fruits,
vegetables, and grains prepared in various ways, including juicing, food
dehydration, sprouting, and other methods of preparation that do not heat the
food above 118 °F (47.8 °C).[37]An example of a raw meat dish is ceviche, a Latin
American dish made with raw meat that is "cooked" from the highly
acidic citric juice from lemons and limes along with other aromatics such as
garlic.
Restaurants
.jpg)
Allyn House restaurant menu
(March 5, 1859)
Tom's Restaurant, a restaurant inNew York City
Restaurants employ trained chefs who prepare food, and
trained waitstaff to serve the customers. The term restaurant is credited to the French from the 19th century, as
it relates to the restorative nature of the bouillons that were once served in
them. However, the concept pre-dates the naming of these establishments, as evidence
suggests commercial food preparation may have existed during the age of the
city of Pompeii,
and urban sales of prepared foods may have existed in China during the Song Dynasty. The coffee shopsor cafés of 17th century Europe may also be considered an
early version of the restaurant.[38] In 2005, the population of
the United States spent $496 billion for out-of-home dining. Expenditures by type of out-of-home
dining were as follows: 40% in full-service restaurants, 37.2% in limited
service restaurants (fast
food), 6.6% in schools or colleges, 5.4% in bars and vending machines,
4.7% in hotels and motels, 4.0% in recreational places, and 2.2% in others,
which includes military bases.[39]
Food
manufacturing
Packaged household food
items
Packaged foods are
manufactured outside the home for purchase. This can be as simple as a butcher preparing meat, or as
complex as a modern international food industry. Early
food processing techniques were limited by available food preservation,
packaging, and transportation. This mainly involved salting, curing, curdling, drying, pickling, fermenting,
and smoking.[40] Food manufacturing arose
during the industrial revolution in the 19th century.[41] This development took
advantage of new mass markets and emerging new
technology, such as milling,
preservation, packaging and labeling, and transportation. It brought the
advantages of pre-prepared time-saving food to the bulk of ordinary people who
did not employ domestic servants.[42]
At the start of the 21st
century, a two-tier structure has arisen, with a few international food
processing giants controlling a wide range of well-known food brands. There also exists a wide array of
small local or national food processing companies.[43] Advanced technologies have
also come to change food manufacture. Computer-based control systems, sophisticated processing and packaging methods, and logistics and distribution advances can enhance
product quality, improve food safety, and
reduce costs.[42]
Commercial trade
International
exports and imports
The World Bank reported that the European
Union was the top food importer in 2005, followed at a distance by the USA and
Japan. Food is now traded and marketed on a global basis. The variety and
availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown
food or the limitations of the local growing season.[44] Between 1961 and 1999,
there was a 400% increase in worldwide food exports.[45] Some countries are now
economically dependent on food exports, which in some cases account for over
80% of all exports.[46]
In 1994, over 100 countries
became signatories to the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in a dramatic increase in trade
liberalization. This included an agreement to reduce subsidies paid
to farmers, underpinned by the WTOenforcement of agricultural
subsidy, tariffs, import quotas, and settlement
of trade disputes that cannot be bilaterally resolved.[47] Where trade barriers are
raised on the disputed grounds of public health and safety, the WTO refer the
dispute to the Codex
Alimentarius Commission, which was founded in 1962 by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Health
Organization. Trade liberalization has greatly affected world food trade.[48]
Marketing
and retailing
Food marketing brings together the
producer and the consumer. It is the chain of activities that brings food from
"farm gate to plate".[49] The marketing of even a
single food product can be a complicated process involving many producers and
companies. For example, fifty-six companies are involved in making one can of chicken noodle soup.
These businesses include not only chicken and vegetable processors but also the
companies that transport the ingredients and those who print labels and
manufacture cans.[50] The food marketing system
is the largest direct and indirect non-government employer in the United
States.
In the pre-modern era, the
sale of surplus food took place once a week when farmers took their wares on
market day into the local village marketplace. Here food was sold to grocers for sale in their local
shops for purchase by local consumers.[26][42] With the onset of
industrialization and the development of the food processing industry, a wider
range of food could be sold and distributed in distant locations. Typically
early grocery shops would be counter-based shops,
in which purchasers told the shop-keeper what they wanted, so that the
shop-keeper could get it for them.[26][51]
In the 20th century, supermarkets were born. Supermarkets
brought with them a self service approach to shopping using shopping carts, and
were able to offer quality food at lower cost through economies
of scale and reduced staffing costs. In the latter
part of the 20th century, this has been further revolutionized by the
development of vast warehouse-sized, out-of-town supermarkets, selling a wide
range of food from around the world.[52]
Unlike food processors,
food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of very large companies control a large proportion
of supermarkets. The supermarket giants wield great purchasing power over
farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, less
than 10% of consumer spending on food goes to farmers, with larger percentages
going to advertising,
transportation, and intermediate corporations.[53]
Prices
It was reported on March
24, 2008, that consumers worldwide faced rising food prices.[54] Reasons for this
development include changes in the weather and dramatic changes in the global economy,
including higher oil prices, lower
food reserves, and growing consumer demand in China and India.[54] In the long term, prices
are expected to stabilize.[54] Farmers will grow more
grain for both fuel and food and eventually
bring prices down.[54] Already this is happening
with wheat,[55][56] with more crops to be planted in the United States, Canada, and Europe in 2009. However, the Food and Agriculture Organization projects that consumers
still have to deal with more expensive food until at least 2018.[54]
It is rare for the spikes
to hit all major foods in most countries at once. Food prices rose 4% in the
United States in 2007, the highest increase since 1990, and are expected to
climb as much again in 2008. As of December 2007, 37 countries faced food crises,
and 20 had imposed some sort of food-price controls. In China, the price of pork jumped 58% in 2007. In the
1980s and 1990s, farm subsidies and support programs allowed major grain
exporting countries to hold large surpluses, which could be tapped during food
shortages to keep prices down. However, new trade policies have made
agricultural production much more responsive to market demands, putting global
food reserves at their lowest since 1983.[54]
Food prices are rising,
wealthier Asian consumers are westernizing their diets, and farmers and nations
of the third world are struggling to keep up the pace. The past five years have
seen rapid growth in the contribution of Asian nations to the global fluid and
powdered milk manufacturing industry, which in 2008 accounted for more than 30%
of production, while China alone accounts for more than 10% of both production and
consumption in the global fruit and vegetable processing and preserving
industry. The trend is similarly evident in industries such as soft drink and
bottled water manufacturing, as well as global cocoa, chocolate, and sugar
confectionery manufacturing, forecast to grow by 5.7% and 10.0% respectively
during 2008 in response to soaring demand in Chinese and Southeast Asian
markets.[57]
Rising food prices over
recent years have been linked with social unrest around the world, including
rioting in Bangladesh and Mexico,[58] and the Arab Spring.[citation needed]
As
investment
Institutions such as hedge funds, pension funds and investment banks like Barclays Capital, Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley[58] have been instrumental in
pushing up prices in the last five years, with investment in food commodities rising from $65bn to $126bn
(£41bn to £79bn) between 2007 and 2012, contributing to 30-year highs. This has
caused price fluctuations which are not strongly related to the actual supply
of food, according to the United Nations.[58] Financial institutions now
make up 61% of all investment in wheat futures. According to Olivier
De Schutter, the UN special rapporteur on food, there was a rush by
institutions to enter the food market following George W Bush's Commodities Futures Modernization Act of 2000.[58] De Schutter told the
Independent in March 2012: "What we are seeing now is that these financial
markets have developed massively with the arrival of these new financial
investors, who are purely interested in the short-term monetary gain and are
not really interested in the physical thing – they never actually buy the ton
of wheat or maize;
they only buy a promise to buy or to sell. The result of this financialisation
of the commodities market is that the prices of the products respond
increasingly to a purely speculative logic. This explains why in very short
periods of time we see prices spiking or bubbles exploding, because prices are
less and less determined by the real match between supply and demand."[58] In 2011, 450 economists
from around the world called on the G20 to regulate the commodities
market more.[58]
Some experts have said that
speculation has merely aggravated other factors, such as climate change,
competition with bio-fuels and overall rising demand.[58]However,
some such as Jayati Ghosh,
professor of economics at Jawaharlal Nehru University in New Delhi, have
pointed out that prices have increased irrespective of supply and demand
issues: Ghosh points to world wheat prices, which doubled in the period from
June to December 2010, despite there being no fall in global supply.[58]
Famine and hunger
Food deprivation leads to
malnutrition and ultimately starvation. This is
often connected with famine,
which involves the absence of food in entire communities. This can have a
devastating and widespread effect on human health and mortality. Rationing is sometimes used to
distribute food in times of shortage, most notably during times of war.[10]
Starvation is a significant
international problem. Approximately 815 million people are undernourished, and
over 16,000 children die per day from hunger-related causes.[59] Food deprivation is
regarded as a deficit need in Maslow's hierarchy of needs and is measured using famine scales.[60]
Food
aid
Food aid can benefit people
suffering from a shortage of food. It can be used to improve peoples' lives in
the short term, so that a society can increase its standard of living to the
point that food aid is no longer required.[61] Conversely, badly managed
food aid can create problems by disrupting local markets, depressing crop
prices, and discouraging food production. Sometimes a cycle of food aid
dependence can develop.[62] Its provision, or
threatened withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool to influence the
policies of the destination country, a strategy known as food politics.
Sometimes, food aid provisions will require certain types of food be purchased
from certain sellers, and food aid can be misused to enhance the markets of
donor countries.[63] International efforts to
distribute food to the neediest countries are often coordinated by the World
Food Programme.[64]
Safety
Salmonella bacteria is a common cause
of foodborne illness, particularly in undercooked chicken and chicken eggs
Hazard Analysis and
Critical Control Points (HACCP)
Flowchart
Foodborne illness,
commonly called "food poisoning", is caused bybacteria, toxins, viruses, parasites, and prions. Roughly 7 million people die of food
poisoning each year, with about 10 times as many suffering from a non-fatal
version.[65] The two most common factors
leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of
ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control.
Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination
of food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade
soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of
articles (known as "foreign bodies") during farming, manufacture,
cooking, packaging, distribution, or sale. These foreign bodies can include
pests or their droppings, hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, and all manner of
other contaminants. It is possible for certain types of food to become
contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a ceramic
pot with lead-based glaze.[65]
Food poisoning has been recognized as a
disease since as early as Hippocrates.[66] The sale of rancid,
contaminated, or adulterated food was commonplace until the introduction of hygiene,
refrigeration, and vermin controls in the 19th century. Discovery of techniques
for killing bacteria using heat, and othermicrobiological studies by scientists such
as Louis Pasteur,
contributed to the modern sanitation standards that are ubiquitous in developed
nations today. This was further underpinned by the work of Justus von Liebig,
which led to the development of modern food storage and food preservation methods.[67] In more recent years, a
greater understanding of the causes of food-borne illnesses has led to the
development of more systematic approaches such as the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), which can identify and eliminate many
risks.[68]
Recommended measures for
ensuring food safety include maintaining a clean preparation area with foods of
different types kept separate, ensuring an adequate cooking temperature, and
refrigerating foods promptly after cooking.[69]
Foods that spoil easily,
such as meats, dairy, and seafood, must be
prepared a certain way to avoid contaminating the people for whom they are
prepared. As such, the general rule of thumb is that cold foods (such as dairy
products) should be kept cold and hot foods (such as soup) should be kept hot
until storage. Cold meats, such as chicken, that are to be cooked should not be
placed at room temperature for thawing, at the risk of dangerous bacterial
growth, such asSalmonella or E. coli.[70]
Allergies
Some people have allergies or sensitivities to foods
which are not problematic to most people. This occurs when a person's immune system mistakes a certain food
protein for a harmful foreign agent and attacks it. About 2% of adults and 8%
of children have a food allergy.[71] The amount of the food
substance required to provoke a reaction in a particularly susceptible
individual can be quite small. In some instances, traces of food in the air,
too minute to be perceived through smell, have been known to provoke lethal
reactions in extremely sensitive individuals. Common food allergens are gluten, corn, shellfish (mollusks), peanuts, andsoy.[71] Allergens frequently
produce symptoms such as diarrhea, rashes, bloating, vomiting, and regurgitation. The digestive complaints usually
develop within half an hour of ingesting the allergen.[71]
Rarely, food allergies can
lead to a medical emergency,
such as anaphylactic
shock, hypotension (low blood pressure), and
loss of consciousness. An allergen associated with this type of reaction is
peanut, although latex products can induce similar
reactions.[71] Initial treatment is with epinephrine (adrenaline), often carried
by known patients in the form of an Epi-pen or Twinject.[72][73]
Other
health issues
Human diet was estimated to
cause perhaps around 35% of cancers in a human epidemiological
analysis by Richard Doll and Richard Peto in 1981.[74] These cancer may be caused
by carcinogens that are present in food
naturally or as contaminants. Food contaminated with fungal growth may contain mycotoxins such as aflatoxins which may be found in
contaminated corn and peanuts. Other carcinogens identified in food include heterocyclic
amines generated in meat when cooked at high
temperature, polyaromatic hydrocarbons in charred meat and smoked
fish, and nitrosamines generated from nitrites
used as food preservatives incured
meat such as bacon.[75]
Anticarcinogens that may help prevent
cancer can also be found in many food especially fruits and vegetable. Antioxidants are important groups of
compounds that may help remove potentially harmful chemicals. It is however
often difficult to identify the specific components in diet that serve to
increase or decrease cancer risk since many food, such as beef steak and
broccoli, contain low concentrations of both carcinogens and anticarcinogens.[75]
Diet
Cultural
and religious diets
Dietary habits are the
habitual decisions a person or culture makes when choosing what foods to eat.[76] Many cultures hold some
food preferences and some food taboos. Dietary choices can also define
cultures and play a role in religion. For example, only kosher foods are permitted by Judaism, halal foods by Islam, and in Hinduism beef is restricted.[77] In addition, the dietary
choices of different countries or regions have different characteristics. This is
highly related to a culture's cuisine.
Diet
deficiencies
Dietary habits play a
significant role in the health and mortality of all humans. Imbalances between
the consumed fuels and expended energy results in either starvation or
excessive reserves of adipose tissue, known as body fat.[78] Poor intake of various
vitamins and minerals can lead to diseases that can have far-reaching effects
on health. For instance, 30% of the world's population either has, or is at
risk for developing, iodine deficiency.[79] It is estimated that at
least 3 million children are blind due to vitamin A deficiency.[80] Vitamin C deficiency results in scurvy.[81] Calcium, Vitamin D, and phosphorus are inter-related; the
consumption of each may affect the absorption of the others. Kwashiorkor and marasmus are childhood disorders
caused by lack of dietary protein.[82]
Moral,
ethical, and health conscious diets
Many individuals limit what
foods they eat for reasons of morality, or other habit. For instance, vegetarians choose to forgo food from
animal sources to varying degrees. Others choose a healthier diet,
avoiding sugars or animal fats and increasing consumption of dietary fiber and antioxidants.[83] Obesity, a serious
problem in the western world, leads to higher chances of developing heart disease, diabetes, and many
other diseases.[84] More recently, dietary
habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about
possible impacts on health or the environment from genetically modified food.[85] Further concerns about the
impact of industrial farming (grains)
on animal welfare,
human health, and the environment are also having an effect
on contemporary human dietary habits. This has led to the emergence of a
movement with a preference for organic and local food.[86]
Nutrition and dietary
problems
Between the extremes of
optimal health and death from starvation or malnutrition, there
is an array of disease states that can be caused or alleviated by changes in
diet. Deficiencies, excesses, and imbalances in diet can produce negative
impacts on health, which may lead to various health problems such as scurvy, obesity, or osteoporosis,diabetes, cardiovascular diseases as well as psychological
and behavioral problems. The science of nutrition attempts to understand how
and why specific dietary aspects influence health.
Nutrients in food are
grouped into several categories. Macronutrients are fat, protein, and
carbohydrates. Micronutrients are the minerals and vitamins.
Additionally, food contains water and dietary fiber.
As previously discussed,
the body is designed by natural selection to enjoy sweet and
fattening foods for evolutionary diets, ideal for hunters and gatherers.
Thus, sweet and fattening foods in nature are typically rare and are very
pleasurable to eat. In modern times, with advanced technology,
enjoyable foods are easily available to consumers. Unfortunately, this promotes obesity in adults and children
alike.
Legal definition
Some countries list a legal
definition of food. These countries list food as any item that is to be
processed, partially processed, or unprocessed for consumption. The listing of
items included as foodstuffs include any substance intended to be, or
reasonably expected to be, ingested by humans. In addition to these foodstuffs,
drink, chewing gum, water,
or other items processed into said food items are part of the legal definition
of food. Items not included in the legal definition of food include animal feed, live
animals (unless being prepared for sale in a market), plants prior to
harvesting, medicinal products, cosmetics, tobacco and tobacco products, narcotic or psychotropic substances, and residues and
contaminants.[87]
Types of food
See also
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|
 |
Notes
16. ^ The sweetness multiplier "300
times" comes from subjective evaluations by a panel of test subjects tasting
various dilutions compared to a standard dilution of sucrose. Sources referenced in this article
say steviosides have up to 250 times the sweetness of sucrose, but others,
including stevioside brands such as SweetLeaf, claim 300 times. 1/3 to 1/2
teaspoon (1.6–2.5 ml) of stevioside powder is claimed to have equivalent
sweetening power to 1 cup (237 ml) of sugar.
17. ^ States
"having an acid taste like lemon or vinegar: she sampled the wine and
found it was sour. (of food, esp. milk) spoiled because of fermentation."
New Oxford American Dictionary
21. ^ Rosenthal,
Andrew J (1999-02-28). Food Texture: Measurement and Perception. ISBN 978-0-8342-1238-1.
53. ^ Magdoff,
Fred (Ed.) "[T]he farmer's share of the food dollar (after paying for
input costs) has steadily declined from about 40 percent in 1910 to less than
10 percent in 1990."
58. ^ a b c d e f g h "The real hunger games: How banks gamble on food
prices – and the poor lose out". The Independent. Retrieved
April 1, 2012.
74. ^ Doll,
R.; Peto, R. (1981). "The causes of cancer: Quantitative estimates of
avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today". Journal of
the National Cancer Institute 66 (6): 1191–1308. PMID 7017215. edit
75. ^ a b Carcinogens and
Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet. National Academy Press. 1996. ISBN 0-309-05391-9.
References
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Aguilera, Jose Miguel and David W. Stanley. Microstructural Principles
of Food Processing and Engineering. Springer, 1999. ISBN 0-8342-1256-0.
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Asado Argentina. About Asado Argentina. Retrieved fromhttp://www.asadoargentina.com/about-asado-argentina/ on 2007-05-28.
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Campbell, Bernard Grant. Human Evolution: An
Introduction to Man's Adaptations. Aldine Transaction: 1998. ISBN 0-202-02042-8.
·
Carpenter, Ruth Ann; Finley, Carrie E. Healthy Eating Every Day. Human Kinetics, 2005. ISBN 0-7360-5186-4.
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Davidson, Alan. The Oxford Companion to
Food.
2nd ed. UK: Oxford University Press, 2006.
·
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The State of Food
Insecurity in the World 2005. . Retrieved fromhttp://www.fao.org/docrep/008/a0200e/a0200e00.htm on 2006-09-29.
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Hannaford, Steve. Oligopoly Watch: Top 20
world food companies. Retrieved fromhttp://www.oligopolywatch.com/2005/10/06.html on 2006-09-23.
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Howe, P. and S. Devereux. Famine Intensity and
Magnitude Scales: A Proposal for an Instrumental Definition of Famine. 2004.
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Humphery, Kim. Shelf Life: Supermarkets
and the Changing Cultures of Consumption. Cambridge University
Press, 1998. ISBN 0-521-62630-7.
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Kripke, Gawain. Food aid or hidden dumping?. Oxfam International,
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·
Lawrie, Stephen; R A Lawrie. Lawrie's Meat Science.
Woodhead Publishing: 1998.ISBN 1-85573-395-1.
·
Magdoff, Fred; Foster, John Bellamy; and Buttel, Frederick H. Hungry for Profit: The
Agribusiness Threat to Farmers, Food, and the Environment. September 2000.ISBN 1-58367-016-5.
·
Merson, Michael H.; Black, Robert E.; Mills, Anne J. International Public
Health: Disease, Programs, Systems, and Policies. Jones and Bartlett
Publishers, 2005.
·
McGee, Harold. On Food and Cooking: The
Science and Lore of the Kitchen. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004. ISBN 0-684-80001-2.
·
Mead, Margaret. The Changing Significance
of Food.
In Carole Counihan and Penny Van Esterik (Ed.), Food and Culture: A Reader. UK:
Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0-415-91710-7.
·
Messer, Ellen; Derose, Laurie Fields and Sara Millman. Who's Hungry? and How Do We
Know?: Food Shortage, Poverty, and Deprivation. United Nations University
Press, 1998. ISBN 92-808-0985-7.
·
National Institute of Health. Food poisoning. MedlinePlus Medical
Encyclopedia F. May 11, 2006. Retrieved fromhttp://www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/pdf/foodallergy.pdf on 2006-09-29.
·
Parekh, Sarad R. The Gmo Handbook:
Genetically Modified Animals, Microbes, and Plants in Biotechnology. Humana Press,2004. ISBN 1-58829-307-6.
·
Regmi, Anita (editor).Changing Structure of Global
Food Consumption and Trade. Market and Trade Economics Division, Economic
Research Service, USDA, May 30, 2001. stock #ERSWRS01-1.
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Schor, Juliet; Taylor, Betsy (editors). Sustainable Planet:
Roadmaps for the Twenty-First Century. Beacon Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8070-0455-3.
·
Shah, Anup. Food Dumping (Aid)
Maintains Poverty. Causes of Poverty. Retrieved from http://www.globalissues.org/TradeRelated/Poverty/FoodDumping.asp on 2006-09-29.
·
Simoons, Frederick J. Eat Not This Flesh: Food
Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present. ISBN 0-299-14250-7.
·
Smith, Andrew (Editor). “Food Marketing,” in Oxford
Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink, New York: Oxford University Press,
2007.
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The Economic Research Service of the USDA. Global Food Markets:
Briefing Rooms.
Retrieved from http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/ on 2006-09-29.
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United Kingdom Office of Public Sector Information. Food Safety Act 1990 (c.
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·
United States Department of Agriculture, USDA Economic
Research Service: The Economics of Food, Farming, Natural Resources, and Rural
America. "Briefing Rooms, Food
CPI, Prices and Expenditures: Food Expenditure Tables". Retrieved from http://www.ers.usda.gov/briefing/CPIFoodAndExpenditures/Data/ on 2007-06-06.
·
Van den Bossche, Peter. The Law and Policy of the
bosanac Trade Organization: Text, Cases and Materials. UK: Cambridge University Press,
2005. ISBN 0-521-82290-4.
·
World Food Programme. Breaking out of the Poverty
Trap: How We Use Food Aid. Retrieved from http://www.wfp.org/food_aid/introduction/index.asp?section=12&sub_section=1 on 2006-09-29.
·
World Health Organization. WHO Global Database on
Child Growth and Malnutrition. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/nutgrowthdb/en/ on 2006-09-29.
·
World Trade Organization. The Uruguay Round. Retrieved fromhttp://www.wto.org/trade_resources/history/wto/urug_round.htm on 2006-09-29.
Further reading
·
Collingham, E. M.: The Taste of War: World War
Two and the Battle for Food (2011)
·
Katz, Solomon: The Encyclopedia of Food
and Culture,
(Scribner, 2003)
·
Marion Nestle: Food Politics: How the Food
Industry Influences Nutrition and Health, University Presses of
California, revised and expanded edition 2007,ISBN 0-520-25403-1
External links
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Food Marketing, FAO
Drink
From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
 |
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please
help improve this article by adding
citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2011)
|
A drink, or beverage, is a kind of liquid which is specifically
prepared for human consumption. There are many
types for drinks. They can be divided into
various groups such as plain water, alcohol, non alcoholic drinks, soft drinks
(carbonated drinks), fruit or vegetable juices and hot drinks. In addition to
fulfilling a basic need, drinks form part of the culture of human society.
|
Contents
[hide]
|
An alcoholic beverage is a
drink that contains ethanol,
commonly known as alcohol (although in chemistry the definition of
"alcohol" includes many other compounds). Beer has been a part of human
culture for 8,000 years.[1] In many countries, drinking alcoholic
beverages in a local bar or pub is a cultural tradition.[2] Asian countries produce
several varieties of alcoholic beverages (e.g. rice wine, Tongba a millet brew).
A non-alcoholic drink is
one that contains little or no alcohol. This
category includes low-alcohol beer,
non-alcoholicwine, and apple cider if they contain less than
0.5% alcohol by volume.
The term "soft
drink" specifies the absence of alcohol in contrast to "hard
drink" and "drink". The term "drink" is neutral but
often denotes alcoholic content. Beverages such as soda pop, sparkling water, iced tea, lemonade, root beer, and fruit punch are the most common soft
drinks. Milk, hot chocolate, tea, coffee,milkshakes, and tap water are not considered to be
soft drinks. Some carbonated soft drinks are available in versions that are
sweetened with a sugar substitute.
Fruit juice is a natural product
that contains few or no additives. Citrus products such as orange juice and tangerinejuice are
familiar breakfast drinks. Grapefruit juice,
pineapple, apple, grape, lime, and lemon juice are also common.Coconut water is a highly nutritious and
refreshing juice. Many kinds of berries are crushed and their juices mixed with
water and sometimes sweetened. Raspberry, blackberry and currants are popular
juices drinks but the percentage of water also determines their nutritive
value. Juices were probably the earliest drinks besides water.[citation needed]Grape juice allowed to
ferment produces wine.
Orange juice and coconut water remain by far the most highly consumed juices.[citation needed]
Fruits are highly
perishable so the ability to extract juices and store them was of significant
value. Some fruits are highly acidic and mixing them with water and sugars or
honey was often necessary to make them palatable. Early storage of fruit juices
was labor intensive, requiring the crushing of the fruits and the mixing of the
resulting pure juices with sugars before bottling.
Vegetable juice are usually
served warm or cold. Different types of vegetables can be used to make
vegetable juice such as carrots,
tomatoes, cucumbers, celeryand many more. Some vegetable juices are
mixed with some fruit juice to taste better. Many popular vegetable juices,
particularly ones with high tomato content, are high in sodium, and therefore
consumption of them for health must be carefully considered. Some vegetable
juices provide the same health benefits as whole vegetables in terms of
reducing risks of cardiovascular disease and cancer.
A hot drink is any beverage
which is normally served heated, by the addition of a heated liquid, such as
water or milk, or by directly heating the drink itself. Examples:
·
Coffee-based
beverages
·
Coffee
·
Espresso
·
Frappé
·
Mocha
·
Latte
·
Maté
·
Teas
·
Tisanes
Some substances may be
defined as either food or drink, and accordingly may be eaten with a spoon or drunk, depending upon
their thickness and solutes.
·
Soup
·
Yogurt
|
Unit
|
Australia
|
UK
|
US
|
||
|
ml
|
imp fl oz
|
ml
|
US fl oz
|
ml
|
|
|
dash
|
1/48
|
0.592
|
1/48
|
0.616
|
|
|
teaspoon
|
5
|
1/8
|
3.55
|
1/6
|
4.93
|
|
tablespoon
|
20
|
1/2
|
14.2
|
1/2
|
14.8
|
|
fluid ounce, nip or pony
|
30
|
1
|
28.413
|
1
|
29.574
|
|
shot, bar glass or jigger
|
30
|
3/2
|
42.6
|
3/2
|
44.4
|
|
can of drink
|
375
|
11.6
|
330
|
12
|
355
|
|
pint
|
570
|
20
|
568
|
16
|
473
|
|
bottle of spirits
|
700
|
24.6
|
700
|
25.3
|
750
|
|
bottle of wine
|
750
|
26.4
|
750
|
25.3
|
750
|
|
|
·
Drinking
·
Food
·
Kefir
·
Water
1. ^ Arnold,
John P (2005). Origin and History of Beer and Brewing: From Prehistoric
Times to the Beginning of Brewing Science and Technology (Reprint
ed.). BeerBooks.com.
2. ^ Hamill,
Pete (1994). A Drinking Life: A Memoir. New York: Little, Brown and
Company. ISBN 978-0-316-34102-8.
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