Advertising
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form of communication. For other uses, see Advertiser (disambiguation). "Adverts"
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Retail
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Ethics
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Promotional contents
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Advertising
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Branding
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Premiums
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Advertising or advertizing[1][2][3] is a form of communication for marketing and used to encourage, persuade, or
manipulate an audience (viewers, readers or listeners; sometimes a specific
group) to continue or take some new action. Most commonly, the desired result
is to drive consumer behavior with respect to a commercial offering, although
political and ideological advertising is also common. In Latin, ad vertere
means "to turn the mind toward."[citation needed] The purpose of advertising
may also be to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or
successful. Advertising messages are usually paid for by sponsors and viewed via varioustraditional media;
including mass media such as newspaper, magazines, television commercial, radio
advertisement, outdoor
advertisingor direct mail; or new media such as blogs, websites or text messages.
Commercial advertisers
often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through "branding," which involves associating a
product name or image with certain qualities in the minds of consumers. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money
to advertise items other than a consumer product or service include political
parties, interest groups, religious organizations and governmental agencies. Nonprofit organizations may rely on free modes of persuasion, such as
a public service announcement (PSA).
Modern advertising was
created with the innovative techniques introduced with tobacco
advertising in the 1920s, most significantly with the
campaigns of Edward Bernays,
which is often considered the founder of modern, Madison Avenue advertising.[4][5][6]
In 2010, spending on
advertising was estimated at $142.5 billion in the United States and $467
billion worldwide [7]
Internationally, the
largest ("big four") advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP.[citation needed]
Contents
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Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and
wall posters. Commercial
messages and political campaign displays have been
found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and found advertising on papyrus was
common in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Wall
or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an
ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia,
Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to
Indian rock art paintings that date back to
4000 BC.[8] History tells us that Out-of-home advertising and billboards are the oldest forms of
advertising.
As the towns and cities of
the Middle Ages began to grow, and the
general populace was unable to read, signs that today would say cobbler,
miller, tailor or blacksmith would use an image associated with their trade
such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horse shoe, a candle or
even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from
the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers (town criers) to
announce their whereabouts for the convenience of the customers.
As education became an
apparent need and reading, as well as printing, developed advertising expanded
to include handbills.[citation needed] In the 18th century[when?] advertisements started to
appear in weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were
used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly
affordable with advances in the printing press; and
medicines, which were increasingly sought after as disease ravaged Europe. However, false advertising and so-called "quack"
advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising
content.
A
1900 advertisement for Pears soap.
Thomas J. Barratt from London has been called "the
father of modern advertising".[9][10][11] Working for the Pears Soap company, Barratt created an
effective advertising campaign for the company products, which involved the use
of targeted slogans, images and phrases. One of his slogans, ""Good
morning. Have you used Pears' soap?" was famous in its day[when?] and well into the 20th
century.[12][13]Under
Barratt's guidance, Pears Soap became the world's first legally registered
brand[when?] and is therefore the
world's oldest continuously existing brand.[citation needed]
An advertising tactic that
he used was to associate the Pears brand with high culture and quality. Most
famously, he used the paintingBubbles by John
Everett Millais as an advertisement by
adding a bar of Pears soap into the foreground. (Millais protested at this
alteration of his work, but in vain as Barrat had bought the copyright.[14]) Barratt
continued this theme with a series of adverts of well groomed middle-class
children, associating Pears with domestic comfort and aspirations of high
society.
Barrat established Pears Annual in 1891 as a spin-off
magazine which promoted contemporary illustration and colour printing and in
1897 added the Pears Cyclopedia a one-volume encyclopedia.[15] From the early 20th century
Pears was famous for the annual "Miss Pears" competition in which
parents entered their children into the high-profile hunt for a young brand
ambassador to be used on packaging and in consumer promotions. He recruited
scientists and the celebrities of the day to publicly endorse the product. Lillie Langtry, a
Britishmusic hall singer and stage actress
with a famous ivory complexion, received income as the first woman to endorse a
commercial product, advertising Pears Soap.
Barratt introduced many of
the crucial ideas that lie behind successful advertising and these were widely
circulated in his day. He constantly stressed the importance of a strong and
exclusive brand image for Pears and of emphasizing the product's availability
through saturation campaigns. He also understood the importance of constantly
reevaluating the market for changing tastes and mores, stating in 1907 that
"tastes change, fashions change, and the advertiser has to change with
them. An idea that was effective a generation ago would fall flat, stale, and
unprofitable if presented to the public today. Not that the idea of today is
always better than the older idea, but it is different - it hits the present
taste."[10]
As the economy expanded
across the world during the 19th century, advertising grew alongside. In the
United States, the success of this advertising format eventually led to the
growth of mail-order advertising.
In June 1836, French
newspaper La
Presse was the first to include paid advertising in
its pages, allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase
its profitability and the formula was soon
copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney B. Palmer established the roots of
the modern day advertising agency in Philadelphia. In 1842 Palmer bought large
amounts of space in various newspapers at a discounted rate then resold the
space at higher rates to advertisers. The actual ad - the copy, layout, and
artwork - was still prepared by the company wishing to advertise; in effect,
Palmer was a space broker. The situation changed in the late 19th century when
the advertising agency of N.W. Ayer & Son was founded. Ayer and Son offered
to plan, create, and execute complete advertising campaigns for its customers.
By 1900 the advertising agency had become the focal point of creative planning,
and advertising was firmly established as a profession. [16] Around the same time, in
France, Charles-Louis
Havas extended the services of his news agency,Havas to include advertisement
brokerage, making it the first French group to organize. At first, agencies
were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers. N. W. Ayer & Sonwas
the first full-service agency to assume responsibility for advertising content.
N.W. Ayer opened in 1869, and was located in Philadelphia.[16]
At the turn of the 19th to
20th century, there were few career choices for women in business; however,
advertising was one of the few. Since women were responsible for most of the
purchasing done in their household,
advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the creative process. In
fact, the first American advertising to use a sexual
sell was created by a woman – for a soap product.
Although tame by today's standards, the advertisement featured a couple with
the message "The skin you love to touch".[17][non-primary source needed]
Modern advertising was
created with the innovative techniques used in tobacco advertising beginning in
the 1920s, most significantly with the campaigns of Edward Bernays,
which is often considered as the founder of modern, Madison Avenue advertising.[4][5][6] The tobacco industries was
one of the firsts to make use of mass production,
with the introduction of the Bonsack machine to roll cigarettes. The
Bonsack machine allowed the production of cigarettes for a mass markets, and
the tobacco industry needed to match such an increase in supply with the
creation of a demand from the masses through advertising.[18]
Advertisement for a live radio broadcast, sponsored by a
milk company and published in the Los Angeles Times on May 6, 1930
In the early 1920s, the
first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers and
retailers who offered programs in order to sell more radios to consumers. As
time passed, many non-profit organizations followed suit in setting up their
own radio stations, and included: schools, clubs and civic groups.[19]
When the practice of
sponsoring programs was popularized, each individual radio program was usually
sponsored by a single business in exchange for a brief mention of the business'
name at the beginning and end of the sponsored shows. However, radio station
owners soon realized they could earn more money by selling sponsorship rights
in small time allocations to multiple businesses throughout their radio
station's broadcasts, rather than selling the sponsorship rights to single
businesses per show.
The advertising techniques
used to promote commercial goods and services can be used to inform, educate
and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as HIV/AIDS,[citation needed] political ideology, energy
conservation and deforestation.
Advertising, in its
non-commercial guise, is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and
motivating large audiences. "Advertising justifies its existence when used
in the public interest—it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for
commercial purposes." Attributed to Howard Gossage by David Ogilvy.
Public service advertising, non-commercial advertising, public interest
advertising, cause marketing, and social marketing are different terms for (or
aspects of) the use of sophisticated advertising and marketing communications
techniques (generally associated with commercial enterprise) on behalf of
non-commercial, public interest issues and initiatives.
In the United States, the
granting of television and radio licenses by the FCC is contingent upon the
station broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising. To meet
these requirements, many broadcast stations in America air the bulk of their
required public service announcements during the late night or early morning
when the smallest percentage of viewers are watching, leaving more day and prime
time commercial slots available for high-paying advertisers.
Public service advertising
reached its height during World Wars I and II under the direction of more
than one government. During WWII President Roosevelt commissioned the creation
of The War Advertising Council (now known as the Ad Council) which is
the nation's largest developer of PSA campaigns on behalf of government
agencies and non-profit organizations, including the longest-running PSA
campaign, Smokey Bear.[citation needed]
This practice was carried
over to commercial television in the late 1940s and early
1950s. A fierce battle was fought between those seeking to commercialise the
radio and people who argued that the radio spectrum should be considered a part
of the commons – to be used only non-commercially and for the public good. The
United Kingdom pursued a public funding model for the BBC, originally a private
company, the British Broadcasting Company, but incorporated as a
public body by Royal Charter in 1927. In Canada,
advocates likeGraham
Spry were likewise able to persuade the federal
government to adopt a public funding model, creating the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. However, in the
United States, the capitalist model prevailed with the passage of the Communications Act of 1934 which created the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).[19] However, the U.S. Congress
did require commercial broadcasting companies to operate in the
"public interest, convenience, and necessity".[20] Public
broadcasting now exists in the United States due to the
1967 Public Broadcasting Act which led to the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and National Public Radio (NPR).
In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the modern practice
of selling advertisement time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had
trouble finding sponsors for many of their programs and compensated by selling
smaller blocks of advertising time to several businesses. This eventually
became the standard for the commercial television industry in the United States.
However, it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows, such as The United States Steel Hour. In some instances the
sponsors exercised great control over the content of the show—up to and
including having one's advertising agency actually writing the show. The single
sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a notable exception being the Hallmark Hall of Fame.
In the 1960s, campaigns
featuring heavy spending in different mass media channels became more
prominent. For example, the Esso gasoline company spent
hundreds of millions of dollars on a brand awareness campaign built around the
simple and alliterative[21] theme Put a Tiger in Your Tank.[22] Psychologist Ernest Dichter[23] and DDB Worldwidecopywriter Sandy Sulcer[24] learned that motorists
desired both power and play while driving, and chose the tiger as an
easy–to–remember symbol to communicate those feelings. The North American and later European campaign featured extensive
television and radio and magazine ads, including photos with tiger tails
supposedly emerging from car gas tanks, promotional events featuring real
tigers, billboards, and in Europe station pump hoses
"wrapped in tiger stripes" as well as pop music songs.[22] Tiger imagery can still be
seen on the pumps of successor firm ExxonMobil.
The late 1980s and early
1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly MTV. Pioneering the concept of the music video, MTV
ushered in a new type of advertising: the consumer tunes in for the advertising message,
rather than it being a by-product or afterthought. As cable
and satellite
television became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged, including channels
entirely devoted to advertising,
such as QVC, Home Shopping Network, and ShopTV Canada.
With the advent of the ad server, marketing
through the Internet opened new frontiers for
advertisers and contributed to the "dot-com" boom
of the 1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue,
offering everything from coupons to free Internet access. At
the turn of the 20th to 21st century, a number of websites including the search engine Google, started a change in online
advertising by emphasizing contextually relevant,
unobtrusive ads intended to help, rather than inundate, users. This has led to
a plethora of similar efforts and an increasing trend of interactive advertising.
The share of advertising
spending relative to GDP has changed little across
large changes in media. For example, in the US in 1925, the main advertising
media were newspapers, magazines, signs on streetcars, and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of
GDP was about 2.9 percent. By 1998, television and radio had become major
advertising media. Nonetheless, advertising spending as a share of GDP was
slightly lower—about 2.4 percent.[25]
A recent advertising
innovation is "guerrilla
marketing", which involves unusual approaches such as staged
encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are
covered with brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can
respond to become part of the advertising message. Guerrilla advertising is
becoming increasingly more popular with a lot of companies. This type of
advertising is unpredictable and innovative, which causes consumers to buy the
product or idea. This reflects an increasing trend of interactive and
"embedded" ads, such as via product placement,
having consumers vote through text messages, and various innovations utilizing social network services such asFacebook or Twitter.[citation needed]
The advertising business
model has also been adapted in recent years. A new development is Media for equity.
Here, advertising is not sold, but provided to start-up companies in return for
equity. If the company grows and is sold, media companies receive cash for
their shares.
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Hierarchy of effects model[26]
It clarifies the objectives
of an advertising campaign and for each individual advertisement. The model
suggests that there are six steps a consumer or a business buyer moves through
when making a purchase. The steps are:
1. Awareness
2. Knowledge
3. Liking
4. Preference
5. Conviction
6. Purchase
·
Means-End Theory
This approach suggests that
an advertisement should contain a message or means that leads the consumer to a
desired end state.
·
Leverage Points
It is designed to move the
consumer from understanding a product's benefits to linking those benefits with
personal values.
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The marketing mix has been
the key concept to advertising. The marketing mix was suggested by professor E.
Jerome McCarthy in the 1960s. The marketing
mix consists of four basic elements called the four P’s. Product is the first P
representing the actual product. Price represents the process of determining
the value of a product. Place represents the variables of getting the product
to the consumer like distribution channels, market coverage and movement organization.
The last P stands for Promotion which is the process of reaching the target
market and convincing them to go out and buy the product.[citation needed]

An
advertisement for a diner. Such signs are common on storefronts.
Paying
people to hold signs is one of the oldest forms of advertising, as with thishuman billboard pictured above
A
bus with an advertisement for GAP in Singapore. Buses and
other vehicles are popular media for advertisers.
Virtually any medium can be
used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include wall paintings, billboards,street furniture components, printed flyers
and rack cards, radio,
cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile
telephone screens, shopping carts, web popups, skywriting, bus stop
benches, human billboards and forehead
advertising, magazines, newspapers, town criers, sides of buses,
banners attached to or sides of airplanes ("logojets"), in-flight advertisements on seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins,
taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens,
musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable
diapers, doors of bathroom stalls, stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the opening
section of streaming audio and video, posters,
and the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts. Any place an
"identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium
is advertising.
The TV commercial is
generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising format, as is
reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial airtime during popular TV events.
The annual Super Bowl football game in the United States
is known as the most prominent advertising event on television. The average
cost of a single thirty-second TV spot during this game has reached US$3.5
million (as of 2012). Some television commercials feature a song or jingle that listeners soon relate
to the product. Virtual advertisements may be inserted into regular television
programming through computer graphics. It is typically inserted into otherwise
blank backdrops[27] or used to replace local
billboards that are not relevant to the remote broadcast audience.[28] More controversially,
virtual billboards may be inserted into the background[29] where none exist in
real-life. This technique is especially used in televised sporting events.[30][31] Virtual product placement
is also possible.[32][33]
An infomercial is a
long-format television commercial, typically five minutes or longer. The word
"infomercial" is a portmanteau of the words "information"
& "commercial". The main objective in an infomercial is to create
an impulse purchase, so
that the consumer sees the presentation and then immediately buys the product
through the advertised toll-free telephone number or website. Infomercials
describe, display, and often demonstrate products and their features, and
commonly have testimonials from consumers and industry professionals.
Radio advertising
Radio advertising is a form of advertising
via the medium of radio.
Radio advertisements are broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter
to an antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in exchange for airing the
commercials. While radio has the limitation of being restricted to sound,
proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage. Radio is an
expanding medium that can be found not only on air, but also online. According
to Arbitron, radio has approximately 241.6 million weekly listeners, or more
than 93 percent of the U.S. population.
Online advertising
Online advertising is a
form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide Web for the expressed purpose
of delivering marketing messages to attract customers. Online ads are delivered
by an ad server. Examples of online advertising include contextual ads that
appear on search engine results pages, banner ads, in text ads, Rich Media Ads, Social network advertising,online classified advertising, advertising
networks and e-mail marketing,
including e-mail spam.
New media
Technological development
and economic globalization favors the emergence of new and new communication
channels and new techniques of commercial messaging.
Product placements
Covert advertising, is when a product or
brand is embedded in entertainment and media. For example, in a film, the main
character can use an item or other of a definite brand, as in the movie Minority Report, where Tom Cruise's
character John Anderton owns a phone with the Nokia logo clearly written in the
top corner, or his watch engraved with the Bulgari logo. Another example of
advertising in film is in I, Robot, where main character
played by Will Smith mentions his Converse shoes several times,
calling them "classics," because the film is set far in the future. I, Robot and Spaceballs also showcase futuristic
cars with the Audi and Mercedes-Benzlogos clearly displayed on
the front of the vehicles. Cadillac chose to advertise in the
movie The
Matrix Reloaded, which as a result contained many scenes in
which Cadillac cars were used. Similarly, product placement for Omega Watches, Ford, VAIO, BMW andAston Martin cars are featured in recent James Bond films, most notably Casino Royale. In "Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer",
the main transport vehicle shows a large Dodge logo on the front. Blade Runner includes some of the most
obvious product placement; the whole film stops to show a Coca-Cola billboard.
Press advertising
Press advertising describes
advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper, magazine, or trade
journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad readership
base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly targeted
media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. A
form of press advertising is classified advertising, which allows private
individuals or companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad for a low
fee advertising a product or service. Another form of press advertising is the
Display Ad, which is a larger ad (can include art) that typically run in an
article section of a newspaper.
Billboard advertising
Billboards are large structures
located in public places which display advertisements to passing pedestrians
and motorists. Most often, they are located on main roads with a large amount
of passing motor and pedestrian traffic; however, they can be placed in any
location with large amounts of viewers, such as on mass transit vehicles and in
stations, in shopping malls or office buildings, and in stadiums.
The RedEye newspaper advertised to its
target market at North
Avenue Beach with a sailboat billboard on Lake Michigan.
Mobile billboard
advertising
Mobile billboards are generally vehicle
mounted billboards or digital screens. These
can be on dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along
routes preselected by clients, they can also be specially equipped cargo trucks
or, in some cases, large banners strewn from planes. The billboards are often
lighted; some being backlit, and others
employing spotlights. Some billboard displays are static, while others change;
for example, continuously or periodically rotating among a set of
advertisements. Mobile displays are used for various situations in metropolitan
areas throughout the world, including: Target advertising, One-day, and
long-term campaigns, Conventions, Sporting events, Store openings and similar
promotional events, and Big advertisements from smaller companies.
In-store advertising
In-store advertising is any
advertisement placed in a retail store. It includes placement of a product in
visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of aisles and
near checkout counters (aka POP—Point Of Purchase display), eye-catching
displays promoting a specific product, and advertisements in such places as
shopping carts and in-store video displays.
Coffee cup advertising
Coffee cup advertising is
any advertisement placed upon a coffee cup that is distributed out of an
office, café, or drive-through coffee shop. This form of advertising was first
popularized in Australia, and has begun growing in popularity in the United
States, India, and parts of the Middle East.[citation needed]
Street advertising
This type of advertising
first came to prominence in the UK by Street Advertising Services to create
outdoor advertising on street furniture and pavements. Working with products
such as Reverse Graffiti, air dancer's and 3D
pavement advertising, the media became an affordable and effective tool for
getting brand messages out into public spaces.[citation needed]
Sheltered Outdoor
Advertising
This type of advertising
opens the possibility of combining outdoor with indoor advertisement by placing
large mobile, structures (tents)
in public places on temporary bases. The large outer advertising space exerts a
strong pull on the observer, the product is promoted indoor, where the creative
decor can intensify the impression.
This type of advertising
focuses upon using celebrity power, fame, money, popularity to gain recognition
for their products and promote specific stores or products. Advertisers often
advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite
products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often
involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to
advertise specific or general products. The use of celebrities to endorse a
brand can have its downsides, however. One mistake by a celebrity can be
detrimental to the public relations of a brand. For example, following his
performance of eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China,
swimmer Michael Phelps' contract with Kellogg's was terminated, as Kellogg's
did not want to associate with him after he was photographed smoking marijuana.
Celebrities such as Britney Spears have advertised for
multiple products including Pepsi, Candies from Kohl's, Twister, NASCAR, Toyota
and many more.
This involves getting
consumers to generate advertising through blogs, websites, wikis and forums,
for some kind of payment.
Using aircraft, balloons or airships to create or display
advertising media. Skywriting is a notable example.
Sales promotions are
another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed because they are
used to gather information about what type of customers you draw in and where
they are, and to jumpstart sales. Sales promotions include things like contests
and games, sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs,
and discounts. The ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential
customers to action.[34]
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Increasingly, other media
are overtaking many of the "traditional" media such as television,
radio and newspaper because of a shift toward consumer's usage of the Internet
for news and music as well as devices like digital video recorders (DVRs) such as TiVo.[35]
Digital signage is poised to become a major
mass media because of its ability to reach larger audiences for less money.
Digital signage also offer the unique ability to see thetarget audience where they are reached by
the medium. Technological advances have also made it possible to control the
message on digital signage with much precision, enabling the messages to be
relevant to the target audience at any given time and location which in turn,
gets more response from the advertising. Digital signage is being successfully
employed in supermarkets.[36] Another successful use of
digital signage is in hospitality locations such as restaurants.[37] and malls.[38]
Advertising on the World
Wide Web is a recent phenomenon. Prices of Web-based advertising space are
dependent on the "relevance" of the surrounding web content and the
traffic that the website receives.
Reasons for online display
advertising: Display ads generate awareness quickly. Unlike search, which
requires someone to be aware of a need, display advertising can drive awareness
of something new and without previous knowledge. Display works well for direct
response. Display is not only used for generating awareness, it’s used for
direct response campaigns that link to a landing page with a clear ‘call to
action’.
E-mail advertising is
another recent phenomenon. Unsolicited bulk E-mail advertising is known as
"e-mail spam".
Spam has been a problem for e-mail users for many years.
A new form of advertising
that is growing rapidly is social network advertising. It is online advertising
with a focus on social networking sites. This is a relatively immature market,
but it has shown a lot of promise as advertisers are able to take advantage of
the demographic information the user has provided to the social networking
site. Friendertising is a more precise advertising term in which people are
able to direct advertisements toward others directly using social network
services.[citation needed]
As the mobile phone became
a new mass media in 1998 when the first paid downloadable content appeared on
mobile phones in Finland, it was only a matter of time until mobile
advertising followed, also first launched in Finland in
2000. By 2007 the value of mobile advertising had reached $2.2 billion and
providers such as Admob delivered billions of
mobile ads.[citation needed]
More advanced mobile ads
include banner ads, coupons, Multimedia Messaging Service picture and video messages,
advergames and various engagement
marketing campaigns. A particular feature driving
mobile ads is the 2D Barcode, which
replaces the need to do any typing of web addresses, and uses the camera
feature of modern phones to gain immediate access to web content. 83 percent of
Japanese mobile phone users already are active users of 2D barcodes.[citation needed]
Some companies have
proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster rockets and the International Space Station.[citation needed]
Unpaid advertising (also
called "publicity advertising"), can provide good exposure at minimal
cost. Personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell
it"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of equating a brand with a
common noun (in the United States, "Xerox" = "photocopier",
"Kleenex" = tissue, "Vaseline" = petroleum jelly,
"Hoover"
= vacuum cleaner, and
"Band-Aid" = adhesive bandage) —
these can be seen as the pinnacle of any advertising campaign. However, some
companies oppose the use of their brand name to label an object. Equating a
brand with a common noun also risks turning that brand into a genericized trademark - turning it into a generic
term which means that its legal protection as a trademark is lost.
From time to time, The CW Television Network airs short programming
breaks called "Content Wraps," to advertise one company's product
during an entire commercial break. The CW pioneered "content wraps"
and some products featured were Herbal Essences, Crest, Guitar Hero II, CoverGirl, and
recently Toyota.
Recently, there appeared a
new promotion concept, "ARvertising", advertising on Augmented Reality technology.[citation needed]
Controversy exists on the
effectiveness of subliminal
advertising (see mind control), and
the pervasiveness of mass messages (see propaganda).[citation needed]
With the Internet came many
new advertising opportunities. Popup, Flash, banner,
Popunder, advergaming, and
email advertisements (all of which are often unwanted or spam in the case of
email) are now commonplace. Particularly since the rise of
"entertaining" advertising, some people may like an advertisement
enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend. In general, the advertising
community has not yet made this easy, although some have used the Internet to
widely distribute their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them. In the last
three quarters of 2009 mobile and internet advertising grew by 18.1% and 9.2%
respectively. Older media advertising saw declines: −10.1% (TV), −11.7%
(radio), −14.8% (magazines) and −18.7% (newspapers ).[citation needed]
Another significant trend
regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the niche market using niche or targeted
ads. Also brought about by the Internet and the theory of The Long Tail,
advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. In the
past, the most efficient way to deliver a message was to blanket the largest mass market audience possible. However,
usage tracking, customer profiles and the growing popularity of niche content
brought about by everything from blogs to social networking sites,
provide advertisers with audiences that are smaller but much better defined,
leading to ads that are more relevant to viewers and more effective for
companies' marketing products. Among others, Comcast Spotlight is one such advertiser
employing this method in their video on demand menus. These advertisements
are targeted to a specific group and can be viewed by anyone wishing to find
out more about a particular business or practice at any time, right from their
home. This causes the viewer to become proactive and actually choose what
advertisements they want to view.[40]
Google adsence is a prefect
example of Niche marketing. Google Calculates the primary purpose of the
website and adjusts ads accordingly. They use key words on the page (or even in
emails) to find the general ideas of topics disused and places ads that will
most likely be clicked on by viewers of the email account or website visitors.
Google has pioneered an ingenious method of putting ads right where they need to
be.[citation needed]
The concept of crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of user-generated advertisements.
User-generated ads are created by consumers as opposed to an advertising agency
or the company themselves, most often they are a result of brand sponsored
advertising competitions. For the 2007 Super Bowl, the Frito-Lays division of PepsiCo held the Crash the Super Bowl contest, allowing consumers
to create their own Doritos commercial.[41] Chevrolet held a similar competition
for their Tahoe line of SUVs.[41] Due to the success of the
Doritos user-generated ads in the 2007 Super Bowl, Frito-Lays relaunched the
competition for the 2009 and 2010 Super Bowl. The resulting ads were among the
most-watched and most-liked Super Bowl ads. In fact, the winning ad that aired
in the 2009 Super Bowl was ranked by the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter as the top ad for the year
while the winning ads that aired in the 2010 Super Bowl were found by Nielsen's
BuzzMetrics to be the "most buzzed-about".[42][43]
This trend has given rise
to several online platforms that host user-generated advertising competitions
on behalf of a company. Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad
competitions for brands such as Google, Nike, Hershey's, General Mills, Microsoft, NBC Universal, Zinio, and Mini Cooper.
Crowdsourced advertisements have gained popularity in part to its cost
effective nature, high consumer engagement, and ability to generate
word-of-mouth. However, it remains controversial, as the long-term impact on
the advertising industry is still unclear.[44]
Advertising has gone through
five major stages of development: domestic, export, international,
multi-national, and global. For global advertisers,
there are four, potentially competing, business objectives that must be
balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while speaking
with one voice, developing economies
of scale in the creative process, maximising local
effectiveness of ads, and increasing the company’s speed of implementation.
Born from the evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and
fundamentally different approaches to the development of global advertising executions:
exporting executions, producing local executions, and importing ideas that
travel.[45]
Advertising research is key
to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The ability to
identify which elements and/or moments of an ad contribute to its success is
how economies of scale are maximised. Once one knows what works in an ad, that
idea or ideas can be imported by any other market. Market research measures, such as Flow of Attention, Flow
of Emotion and branding
moments provide insight into what is working in an ad
in any country or region because the measures are based on the visual, not
verbal, elements of the ad.[46]
Foreign governments,
particularly those that own marketable commercial products or services, often
promote their interests and positions through the advertising of those goods
because the target audience is not only largely unaware of the forum as a
vehicle for foreign messaging but also willing to receive the message while in
a mental state of absorbing information from advertisements during television
commercial breaks, while reading a periodical, or while passing by billboards
in public spaces. A prime example of this messaging technique is advertising campaigns to
promote international travel. While advertising foreign destinations
and services may stem from the typical goal of increasing revenue by drawing
more tourism, some travel campaigns carry the additional or alternative
intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or improving existing ones among
the target audience towards a given nation or region. It is common for
advertising promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the
tourism ministries of those countries, so these ads often carry political
statements and/or depictions of the foreign government's desired international public perception.
Additionally, a wide range of foreign airlines and travel-related services
which advertise separately from the destinations, themselves, are owned by
their respective governments; examples include, though are not limited to, theEmirates
airline (Dubai), Singapore
Airlines (Singapore), Qatar Airways (Qatar), China Airlines (Taiwan/Republic of China),
and Air China (People's Republic of China). By depicting their
destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and pleasant light,
countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could
mitigate prior public impressions.[citation needed]
In the realm of advertising
agencies, continued industry diversification has seen observers note
that “big global clients don't need big global agencies any more”.[47] This is reflected by the growth
of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as Canadian
business TAXI and SMART in Australia and has been
referred to as "a revolution in the ad world".[48]
The ability to record shows
on digital video recorders (such as TiVo) allow users
to record the programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through
commercials. Additionally, as more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television
programs; fewer people watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that
these sets are sold, means the company will
receive additional profits from the sales of these sets.
To counter this effect, a
variety of strategies have been employed. Many advertisers have opted for
product placement on TV shows like Survivor.
Other strategies include integrating advertising with internet-connected EPGs, advertising on companion devices (like
smartphones and tablets) during the show, and creating TV apps. Additionally, some like brands have opted
for social television sponsorship.[citation needed]
Advertising education has become widely popular
with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees becoming available in the emphasis.[citation needed] A surge in advertising
interest is typically attributed to the strong relationship advertising plays
in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance of online social
networking. A unique model for teaching advertising is the student-run advertising agency, where advertising
students create campaigns for real companies.[49] Organizations such as American Advertising Federation and AdU Network partner
established companies with students to create these campaigns.
While advertising can be
seen as necessary for economic growth, it is not without social costs. Unsolicited commercial e-mail and other forms of spam have become so prevalent as
to have become a major nuisance to users of these services, as well as being a
financial burden on internet service providers.[50] Advertising is increasingly
invading public spaces, such as schools, which some critics argue is a form of
child exploitation.[51][52] In addition, advertising
frequently uses psychological pressure (for example, appealing to feelings of
inadequacy) on the intended consumer, which may be harmful. Many even feel that
often, advertisements exploit the desires of a consumer, by making a particular
product more appealing, by manipulating the consumers needs and wants.
There have been increasing
efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the
influence of advertising. Some examples are: the ban on television tobacco
advertising imposed in many countries, and the total ban of advertising to children under 12 imposed by the
Swedish government in 1991. Though that regulation continues in effect for
broadcasts originating within the country, it has been weakened by the European Court of Justice, which had found that
Sweden was obliged to accept foreign programming, including those from
neighboring countries or via satellite. Greece’s regulations are of a similar
nature, “banning advertisements for children's toys between 7 am and 10 pm and
a total ban on advertisement for war toys".[53]
In Europe and elsewhere,
there is a vigorous debate on whether (or how much) advertising to children
should be regulated. This debate was exacerbated by a report released by theKaiser Family Foundation in February 2004 which
suggested fast food advertising that targets children was
an important factor in the epidemic of childhood obesity in the United States.
In New Zealand, South
Africa, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Canada, and many European countries, the
advertising industry operates a system of self-regulation. Advertisers,
advertising agencies and the media agree on a code of advertising standards
that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to ensure that
any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory
organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the
intent of upholding the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards Authority in the UK.
In the UK most forms of
outdoor advertising such as the display of billboards is regulated by the UK
Town and County Planning system. Currently the display of an advertisement
without consent from the Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a
fine of £2,500 per offence. All of the major outdoor billboard companies in the
UK have convictions of this nature.
In the US many communities
believe that many forms of outdoor advertising blight the public realm.[54] As long ago as the 1960s in
the US there were attempts to ban billboard advertising in the open
countryside.[55] Cities such as São Paulo have introduced an outright
ban[56] with London also having
specific legislation to control unlawful displays.
Many advertisers employ a
wide-variety of linguistic devices to bypass regulatory laws (e.g. In France,
printing English words in bold and French translations in fine print to deal
with the Article 120 of the 1994 Toubon Law limiting the use of
English).[57] The advertisement of
controversial products such as cigarettes and condoms are subject to government
regulation in many countries. For instance, the tobacco industry is required by
law in most countries to display warnings cautioning consumers about the health
hazards of their products. Linguistic variation is often used by advertisers as
a creative device to reduce the impact of such requirements.
Advertising research is a
specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ
different methodologies. Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known
as copy testing) and
post-testing of ads and/or campaigns—pre-testing is done before an ad airs to
gauge how well it will perform and post-testing is done after an ad airs to
determine the in-market impact of the ad or campaign on the consumer.
Continuous ad tracking and theCommunicus System are competing
examples of post-testing advertising research types.[citation needed]
Today’s culture is made up
of meanings between consumers and marketers. These meanings depict signs and symbols that are
encoded in everyday objects.[58] Semiotics is the study of signs and
how they are interpreted. Advertising has many hidden signs and meanings within brand names, logos, package designs, print advertisements, and television advertisements. The purpose of semiotics
is to study and interpret the message being conveyed in advertisements. Logos
and advertisements can be interpreted at two levels known as the surface level
and the underlying level. The surface level uses signs creatively to create an
image or personality for their product. These signs can be images, words,
fonts, colors,
or slogan. The underlying level is made up of hidden meanings. The combination
of images, words, colors,
and slogan must be interpreted by the audience or consumer.[59] The “key to advertising
analysis” is the signifier and the signified. The signifier is the object and
the signified is the mental concept.[60] A product has a signifier
and a signified. The signifier is the color, brand name, logo design, and
technology. The signified has two meanings known as denotative and connotative.
The denotative meaning is the meaning of the product. A television’s denotative
meaning would be that it is high definition. The connotative meaning is the
product’s deep and hidden meaning. A connotative meaning of a television would
be that it is top of the line.[61]
Apple is an excellent example of
using semiotics in their advertising campaign. Apple’s commercials used a black
silhouette of a person that was the age of Apple's target market. They placed
the silhouette in front of a blue screen so that the picture behind the
silhouette could be constantly changing. However, the one thing that stays the
same in these ads is that there is music in the background and the silhouette
is listening to that music on a white iPod through white headphones. Through
advertising, the white color on a set of earphones now signifies that the music
device is an iPod. The white color signifies almost all of Apple’s products.[62]
The semiotics of gender plays a key influence on
the way in which signs are interpreted. When considering gender
roles in advertising, individuals are influenced by three categories.
Certain characteristics of stumuli may enhance or decrease the elaboration of
the message (if the product is
perceived as feminine or masculine). Second,
the characteristics of individuals can affect attention and elaboration of the message
(traditional or non-traditional gender role orientation). Lastly,
situational factors may be important to influence the elaboration of the
message.[63]
There are two types of marketing communication claims-objective and
subjective.[64] Objective claims stem from
the extent to which the claim associates the brand with a tangible product or
service feature. For instance, the camera has auto focus features.
Subjective claims convey emotional, subjective, impressions of intangible
aspects of a product or service. They are non-physical features of a product or
service that cannot be directly perceived, as they have no physical reality. For
instance the brochure has a beautifuldesign.[65] Males tend to respond better to
objective marketing communications claims while females tend to respond better to
subjective marketing communications claims.[66]
In advertisements, men are
represented as independent. They are shown in more occupations than women.
Women are represented mainly as housewives and mothers. Men are more likely to
be shown advertising cars or business products, while women advertise domestic
products. Men are more likely to be shown outdoors or in business settings.
Women are depicted in domestic settings. Men are more often portrayed as
authorities. As far as ads go, with age men seem to gain wisdom and authority.
On the other hand women seem to disappear with age. Voiceovers are commonly
used in advertising. Most voiceovers are men (figures of up to
94% have been reported). There have been morefemale voiceovers in recent years
but mainly for food, household products, and feminine care products.[67]
According to a 1977 study
by David Statt, females process information comprehensively, while
males process information through heuristic devices such as procedures, methods
orstrategies for solving problems, which
could have an effect on how they interpret advertising.[68] According to this study,
men prefer to have available and apparent cues to interpret the message where
females engage in more creative, associative, imagery-laced interpretation.
More recently, research by
Martin (2003) reveals that males and females differ in how they react to
advertising depending on their mood at the time of exposure to the ads, and the
affective tone of the advertising. When feeling sad, males prefer happy ads to
boost their mood. In contrast, females prefer happy ads when they are feeling
happy. The television programs in which the ads are embedded are shown to
influence a consumer's mood state.[69]
Notes
4.
^ a b Donley T. Studlar
(2002) Tobacco Control: Comparative Politics in the United
States and Canada p.55 quotation:
...from
the early days advertising has been intimately intertwined with tobacco. The
man who is sometimes considered the founder of modern advertising and Madison
Avenue, Edward Bernays, created many of the major cigarette campaigns of the
1920s, including having women march down the street demanding the right to
smoke.
...during
the early twentieth century, tobacco manufacturers virtually created the modern
advertising and marketing industry as it is known today.
6.
^ a b Stanton Glantz in Mad Men Season 3 Extra - Clearing the Air
- The History of Cigarette Advertising, part 1, min 3:38 quotation:
...development
of modern advertising. And it was really the tobacco industry, from the
beginning, that was at the forefront of the development of modern, innovative,
advertising techniques.
7.
^ WPP. "http://www.wpp.com/wpp/press/press/default.htm?guid={23ebd8df-51a5-4a1d-b139-576d711e77ac}". WPP.
8.
^ Bhatia (2000). Advertising
in Rural India: Language, Marketing Communication, and Consumerism, 62+68
9.
^ He was first
described as such in T F G Coates, 'Mr Thomas J Barratt, "The father of
modern advertising"', Modern Business, September 1908, pp 107-15.
10.
^ a b Matt Haig, Brand
failures: the truth about the 100 biggest branding mistakes of all time,
Kogan Page Publishers, 2005, p.219; 266.
12.
^ Obituary, Thomas J.
Barratt Dead: Chairman of the Firm of A. & F. Pears an Advertising
Genius, New York Times, April 27, 1914, p.11
13.
^ Eric Partridge, Paul
Beale, A Dictionary of Catch Phrases: British and American, from the
Sixteenth Century to the Present Day, Routledge, 1986, p.164.
16.
^ a b Eskilson, Stephen J.
(2007). Graphic Design: A New History. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale
University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-300-12011-0.
17.
^ Advertising
Slogans, Woodbury Soap Company,
"A skin you love to touch", J.
Walter Thompson Co., 1911
19.
^ a b McChesney, Robert, Educators
and the Battle for Control of U.S. Broadcasting, 1928-35, Rich Media, Poor
Democracy, ISBN 0-252-02448-6 (1999)
21.
^ William Safire (February
6, 2005). "ON LANGUAGE: Metaphor Madness". The
New York Times. Retrieved 2011-10-19. "The foolish fearsomeness of
this act was vitiated in the 1960s by Esso, which took a smiling tiger as a
symbol with the alliterative sloganPut a tiger in your tank."
22.
^ a b "Western Europe: The Tiger Goes Abroad". Time.
May 28, 1965. Retrieved 2011-10-19. ""Put a tiger in your tank."
The star of one of the most popular advertising campaigns ever hatched on
Madison Avenue, Esso's frisky, whimsical tiger with the high-octane tail has
become a roaring success all over Europe."
23.
^ Lynne ames (August 2,
1998). "The View From/Peekskill; Tending the Flame of a
Motivator". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-10-19.
"Among his most famous successes was the slogan Put a tiger in
your tank, still in use by Exxon."
24.
^ David Kaplan (January
2004). "Sulcer, 77, Former DDB Needham Exec, Dies". all
Business. Retrieved 2011-10-03. "Frederick D. "Sandy"
Sulcer... He created the well-known "Put a tiger in your tank" theme
line for Esso (now ExxonMobil)"
25.
^ "Annual
U.S. Advertising Expenditure Since 1919". Galbithink.org.
2008-09-14.Archived from the original on 1 April
2009. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
26.
^ Clow, Kenneth E.;
Baack, Donald (2007). Integrated Advertising, Promotion, and Marketing
Communications 3rd edition. Pearson Education. pp. 165-171. ISBN 0-13-186622-2.
27.
^ McCarthy, Michael
(2002-10-17). "Digitally inserted ads pop up more in sports".
usatoday.Com. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
28.
^ Keith Mcarthur. "Business". globeandmail.com. Archived from the original on 19 May
2009. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
34.
^ Altstiel, Tom, and
Jean Grow. Advertising Strategy: Creative Tactics From the Outside/In. CA: Sage
Publication Inc. 2006. Print.
38.
^ "Aimdigitalvisions.com".
Aimdigitalvisions.com. Archived from the original on 17 August
2010. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
39.
^ "Trends & Numbers". Newspaper
Association of America. 14 March 2012. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
42.
^ Elliott, Stuart
(February 8, 2010). "Do-It-Yourself Super Ads". New York
Times. Retrieved May 10, 2010.
43.
^ Horovitz, Bruce
(December 31, 2009). "'Two nobodies from nowhere' craft winning Super
Bowl ad". USA Today. Retrieved May 10, 2010.
44.
^ Moskowitz, Robert
(May 10, 2006). "Are Consumer-Generated Ads Here to Stay?".
iMediaConnection. Archived from the original on 26 April
2010. Retrieved May 10, 2010.
47.
^ Howard, Theresa
(2005-10-10). "USA Today, October 9, 2005".
Usatoday.com. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
50.
^ "Slashdot | ISP Operator Barry Shein Answers Spam
Questions". Interviews.slashdot.org. 2003-03-03. Retrieved
20x09-04-20.
52.
^ http://web.archive.org/web/20090416200521/http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/parents/marketing/marketers_target_kids.cfm
54.
^ "Welcome to
SCRUB". Urbanblight.org. Archived from the original on 22 April
2009. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
55.
^ "How the Highway Beautification Act Became a
Law". Fhwa.dot.gov. Archivedfrom the original on 4 June 2009.
Retrieved 2009-04-20.
56.
^ "Billboard ban in São Paulo angers advertisers -
Americas - International Herald Tribune". International Herald
Tribune. 2009-03-29. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
58.
^ Mick, Devid Glen
(September 1986). "Consumer Research and Semiotics: Exploring the
Morphology of Signs, Symbols, and Significance". The Journal of
Consumer Research 13 (2): 196. doi:10.1086/209060.
59.
^ Beasley, Ron
(2002). Persuasive Signs: The Semiotics of Advertising. Berlin,
Germany: Walter deGruyter GmbH & KG. ISBN 3-11-017341-7.
63.
^ Ademola, Owolabi
(2005). "Effects of Gender-Role Orientation, Sex of Advert Presenter and
Product Type on Advertising Effectiveness". European Journal of
Scientific Research 35 (4): 537–543.
64.
^ Koc, Erdogan (2002).
"Impact of gender in marketing communications: the role of cognitive and
affective cues". Journal of Marketing Communications 8 (4):
257.doi:10.1080/13527260210145993.
65.
^ Holbrook, Morris
(November 1978). "Beyond Attitude Structure: Toward the Informational
Determinants of Attitude". Journal of Marketing Research 15 (4).
66.
^ Silverman, Julian;
King, Catherine (1970). "Pseudoperceptual defferentiation". Journal
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 34 (1):
119–23. doi:10.1037/h0028807.PMID 5436459.
68.
^ Statt, David
(1977). Understanding the Consumer - A Psychological Approach.
London: Macmillan Press.
69.
^ Martin, Brett A. S.
(2003), "The Influence of Gender on Mood Effects in
Advertising",Psychology and Marketing,20 (3), 249-273.
Bibliography
External
links [edit]
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:Advertising
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·
Advertising Educational
Foundation, archived advertising exhibits and classroom resources
·
Ad*Access, over
7,000 U.S. and Canadian advertisements, dated 1911-1955, includes World War II
propaganda.
·
Emergence of Advertising in
America, 9,000 advertising items and publications dating from 1850
to 1940, illustrating the rise of consumer culture and the birth of a
professionalized advertising industry in the United States.
·
AdViews, vintage
television commercials
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