Education
Contents
Etymologically, the
word "education" is derived from the Latin ēducātiō ("A breeding, a
bringing up, a rearing") from ēdūcō ("I educate, I
train") which is related to the homonymēdūcō ("I lead forth, I take
out; I raise up, I erect") from ē- ("from, out of")
and dūcō ("I lead, I
conduct").[2]
7. ^ Ross, Elizabeth Dale
(1976). The Kindergarten Crusade: The Establishment of Preschool in the
United States. Athens: Ohio University Press. p. 1.
Education
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
School
children sitting in the shade of an orchard in Bamozai, near Gardez, Paktya
Province, Afghanistan.
Students
in Kagugu Primary School ofRwanda.
Education in its general sense is a
form of learning in which knowledge, skills, and habits of a group of people are
transferred from one generation to the next through teaching, training,
research, or simply through autodidacticism.[1] Generally, it occurs
through anyexperience that has a formative effect
on the way one thinks, feels, or acts.
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Contents
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4.2 Open
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6 Adult
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9 Theory
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Etymologically, the
word "education" is derived from the Latin ēducātiō ("A breeding, a
bringing up, a rearing") from ēdūcō ("I educate, I
train") which is related to the homonymēdūcō ("I lead forth, I take
out; I raise up, I erect") from ē- ("from, out of")
and dūcō ("I lead, I
conduct").[2]
A right to education has
been created and recognized by some jurisdictions: Since 1952, Article 2 of the
first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges all signatory
parties to guarantee the right to education. It does not however guarantee any
particular level of education of any particular quality.[3] At the global level, the United Nations' International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 guarantees this
right under Article 13.[4]
Throughout history various
governments have made it illegal to educate children privately or at home. Various totalitarian
regimes, for example, have mandated indoctrination through
propaganda in the Hitler Youth and propaganda
in education under various communist regimes.
Systems of schooling
involve institutionalized teaching and learning in relation to a curriculum,
which itself is established according to a predetermined purpose of the schools
in the system. Schools systems are sometimes also based on religions, giving them
different curricula.
In formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses and
their content offered at a school or university. As an
idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course
of deeds and experiences through
which children grow to become matureadults. A curriculum is prescriptive, and is
based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what
topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or
standard.
An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge
which is formally taught, either at the university–or via some other such
method. Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches, and
distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad
areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences, mathematics, computer science, social sciences, humanities andapplied sciences.[5]
Educational institutions
may incorporate fine arts as part of K-12 grade
curricula or within majors at colleges and universities as
electives. The various types of fine arts are music, dance, and theater.[6]
The term preschool refers
to a school for children who are not old enough to attend kindergarten. It is a
nursery school.
Preschool education is
important because it can give a child the edge in a competitive world and
education climate.[citation needed] While children who do not
receive the fundamentals during their preschool years will be taught the
alphabet, counting, shapes and colors and designs when they begin their formal
education they will be behind the children who already possess that knowledge. The true
purpose behind kindergarten is "to provide a child-centered, preschool
curriculum for three to seven year old children that aimed at unfolding the
child's physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each
of them."[7]
Primary
school in open air. Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts ofBucharest, around
1842.
Primary (or elementary)
education consists of the first 5–7 years of formal, structured education.
In general, primary education consists of six or eight years of schooling
starting at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes
within, countries. Globally, around 89% of primary-age children are enrolled in
primary education, and this proportion is rising.[8] Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to
achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many
countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. The
division between primary and secondary
education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally
occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have
separate middle schools, with
the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around
the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly
referred to as primary schools. Primary schools in these
countries are often subdivided into infant schoolsand junior school.
In India, compulsory
education spans over twelve years, out of which children receive elementary
education for 8 years. Elementary schooling consists of five years of primary
schooling and 3 years of upper primary schooling. Various states in the
republic of India provide 12 years of compulsory school education based on national
curriculum framework designed by the National Council of Educational
Research and Training.
In most contemporary
educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal
education that occurs duringadolescence.
It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the
optional, selective tertiary,
"post-secondary", or "higher" education
(e.g. university,
vocational school) for adults.
Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be
called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or
vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one
system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education
also varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally
around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs
mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada and Australia primary and secondary
education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New
Zealand Year 1–13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to
prepare for higher education or to train directly in a profession.
The emergence of secondary
education in the United States did not happen until 1910, caused by the rise in
big businesses and technological advances in factories (for instance, the
emergence of electrification), that required skilled workers. In
order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created, with a
curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students
for white
collar or skilled blue
collar work. This proved to be beneficial for both
employers and employees, for the improvement in human capital caused employees
to become more efficient, which lowered costs for the employer, and skilled
employees received a higher wage than employees with just primary educational
attainment.
In Europe, grammar schools
or academies date from as early as the 16th century, in the form of public schools, fee-paying schools,
or charitable educational foundations, which themselves have an even longer history.
Autodidacticism (also
autodidactism) is self-directed learning that is related to but different from informal learning.
In a sense, autodidacticism is "learning on your own" or "by
yourself", and an autodidact is a self-teacher. Autodidacticism is a
contemplative, absorbing process. Some autodidacts spend a great deal of time
reviewing the resources of libraries and educational websites. One may become
an autodidact at nearly any point in one's life. While some may have been
informed in a conventional manner in a particular field, they may choose to
inform themselves in other, often unrelated areas. Notable
autodidacts include Abraham Lincoln (U.S. president), Srinivasa
Ramanujan (mathematician), Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist), Charles Darwin (naturalist), Thomas
Alva Edison (inventor), Tadao Ando(architect), George
Bernard Shaw (playwright), Frank Zappa (composer, recording
engineer, film director),and Leonardo da Vinci (engineer, scientist,
mathematician).
Vocational
education is a form of education focused on direct and
practical training for a specific trade or craft. Vocational education may come
in the form of an apprenticeship or internship as well as institutions
teaching courses such as carpentry, agriculture, engineering, medicine,architecture and the arts.
Indigenous
education refers to the inclusion of indigenous
knowledge, models, methods and content within formal and non-formal educational
systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the growing recognition and use of
indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of
indigenous knowledge and language through the processes of colonialism.
Furthermore, it can enable indigenous communities to "reclaim and revalue
their languages and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success
of indigenous students."[9]
An anarchistic free school
(also anarchist free school and free school) is a decentralized network in
which skills, information, and knowledge are shared without hierarchy or the
institutional environment of formal schooling. Free school students may be adults,
children, or both. This organisational structure is distinct from ones used by
democratic free schools which permit children's individual initiatives and
learning endeavors within the context of a school democracy, and from free
education where 'traditional' schooling is made available to pupils without
charge. The open structure of free schools is intended to encourage
self-reliance, critical consciousness, and personal development. Free schools
often operate outside the market economy in favor of a gift economy.[citation needed] Nevertheless, the meaning
of the "free" of free schools is not restricted to monetary cost, and
can refer to an emphasis on free speech and student-centred education.[citation needed]
Alternative education, also known as non-traditional education or educational alternative, is a broad term that may
be used to refer to all forms of education outside of traditional education (for all age groups and
levels of education). This may include not only forms of education designed for
students with special needs (ranging from teenage pregnancy to intellectual
disability), but also forms of education designed for a general audience and
employing alternative educational philosophies and methods.
Alternatives of the latter
type are often the result of education reform and are rooted in various philosophies that are commonly
fundamentally different from those of traditionalcompulsory
education. While some have strong political, scholarly, or philosophical orientations, others are
more informal associations of teachers and students dissatisfied with certain
aspects of traditional education. These alternatives, which
include charter schools, alternative
schools, independent
schools, homeschooling and autodidacticism vary, but often emphasize
the value of small class size, close relationships between students and
teachers, and a sense
of community.
Alternative education may
also allow for independent learning and engaging class activities.[10]
In the past, those who were
disabled were often not eligible for public education. Children with
disabilities were often educated by physicians or special tutors. These early
physicians (people like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education
today. They focused on individualized instruction and functional skills.
Special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities in its
early years, but more recently it has been opened to anyone who has experienced
difficulty learning.[11]
The concept of education
through recreation was first applied to childhood development in the 19th
century.[12] In the early 20th century,
the concept was broadened to include young adults but the emphasis was on
physical activities.[13] Educationalist Lawrence L.P. Jacks, who was
also an early proponent of lifelong learning, best described the modern concept
of education through recreation in the following quotation "A master in
the art of living draws no sharp distinction between his work and his play, his
labour and his leisure, his mind and his body, his education and his
recreation. He hardly knows which is which. He simply pursues his vision of
excellence through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine whether
he is working or playing. To himself he always seems to be doing both. Enough
for him that he does it well."(Jacks, 1932).[14] Education through
recreation is the opportunity to learn in a seamless fashion through all of
life's activities.[15] The concept has been
revived by the University of Western Ontario to teach anatomy to medical students.[15]
Higher education, also
called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the
non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school
providing a secondary education, such as a high school or secondary school.
Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational
education and training. Colleges and universities are the main
institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes
known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the
receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.
Higher education generally
involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most
developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter
higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore
very important to national economies, both as a
significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated
personnel for the rest of the economy.
University education
includes teaching, research, and social services activities, and it includes
both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred
to as tertiary
education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred
to as graduate school).
Universities are generally composed of several colleges. In the United States,
universities can be private and independent, like Yale University,
they can be public and State governed, like the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education,
or they can be independent but State funded, like the University of Virginia.
Higher education in
particular is currently undergoing a transition towards open education, elearning alone is currently growing
at 14 times the rate of traditional learning.[16] Open education is fast
growing to become the dominant form of education, for many reasons such as its
efficiency and results compared to traditional methods.[17] Cost of education has been
an issue throughout history, and a major political issue in most countries
today. Open education is generally significantly cheaper than traditional
campus based learning and in many cases even free. Many large university
institutions are now starting to offer free or almost free full courses such as
Harvard, MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form edX Other universities offering
open education are Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, Edinburgh, U.Penn,
U. Michigan, U. Virginia, U. Washington, Caltech. It has been called the
biggest change in the way we learn since the printing press.[18] Many people despite
favorable studies on effectiveness may still desire to choose traditional
campus education for social and cultural reasons.[19]
The conventional merit
system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is in campus
universities. Although some open universities do already offer conventional
degrees such as the Open University in the United Kingdom.
Currently many of the major open education sources offer their own form of
certificate. Due to the popularity of open education these new kind of academic
certificates are gaining more respect and equal "academic value"
to traditional degrees.[20] Many open universities are
working to have the ability to offer students standardized testing and
traditional degrees and credentials.[citation needed]
There has been a culture
forming around distance learning for people who are looking to enjoy the shared
social aspects that many people value in traditional on campus education that
is not often directly offered from open education.[citation needed] Examples of this are people
in open education forming study groups, meetups and movements such asUnCollege.
A liberal arts institution can be defined
as a "college or university curriculum aimed at imparting broad
general knowledge and developing general intellectual capacities, in contrast
to a professional, vocational,
or technical curriculum."[21] Although what is known
today as the liberal arts college began in Europe,[22] the term is more commonly
associated with Universities in the United States.[citation needed]
A nonresidential junior
college offering courses to people living in a particular area.
One of the most substantial
uses in education is the use of technology. Also technology is an increasingly
influential factor in education. Computers and mobile phones are used in
developed countries both to complement established education practices and develop
new ways of learning such as online education (a type of distance
education). This gives students the opportunity to choose what they
are interested in learning. The proliferation of computers also means the
increase of programming and blogging. Technology offers powerful learning tools
that demand new skills and understandings of students, including Multimedia,
and provides new ways to engage students, such as Virtual learning environments. One such tool are virtual manipulatives, which are an
"interactive, Web-based visual representation of a dynamic object that
presents opportunities for constructing mathematical knowledge" (Moyer,
Bolyard, & Spikell, 2002). In short, virtual manipulatives are dynamic
visual/pictorial replicas of physical mathematical manipulatives, which have
long been used to demonstrate and teach various mathematical concepts. Virtual
manipulatives can be easily accessed on the Internet as stand-alone applets,
allowing for easy access and use in a variety of educational settings. Emerging
research into the effectiveness of virtual manipulatives as a teaching tool
have yielded promising results, suggesting comparable, and in many cases
superior overall concept-teaching effectiveness compared to standard teaching
methods.[citation needed] Technology is being used
more not only in administrative duties in education but also in the instruction
of students. The use of technologies such as PowerPoint and interactive whiteboard is capturing the attention
of students in the classroom. Technology is also being used in the assessment
of students. One example is the Audience Response System (ARS), which allows
immediate feedback tests and classroom discussions.[23]
American
students in 2001, in a computer fundamentals class taking a computer-based test
Information and
communication technologies (ICTs) are a "diverse set of tools and
resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage
information."[24] These technologies include
computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and
telephony. There is increasing interest in how computers and the Internet can
improve education at all levels, in both formal and non-formal settings.[25] Older ICT technologies,
such as radio and television, have for over forty years been used for open and
distance learning, although print remains the cheapest, most accessible and
therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in both developed and developing
countries.[26] In addition to classroom
application and growth of e-learning opportunities for knowledge attainment, educators
involved in student affairs programming have recognized the increasing
importance of computer usage with data generation for and about students.
Motivation and retention counselors, along with faculty and administrators, can
impact the potential academic success of students by provision of technology
based experiences in the University setting.[27]
The use of computers and
the Internet is in its infancy in developing countries, if these are used at
all, due to limited infrastructure and the attendant high costs of access.
Usually, various technologies are used in combination rather than as the sole delivery
mechanism. For example, the Kothmale Community Radio Internet uses both radio
broadcasts and computer and Internet technologies to facilitate the sharing of
information and provide educational opportunities in a rural community in Sri
Lanka.[28] The Open University of the
United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969 as the first educational institution
in the world wholly dedicated to open and distance learning, still relies heavily
on print-based materials supplemented by radio, television and, in recent
years, online programming.[29] Similarly, the Indira
Gandhi National Open University in India combines the use of print, recorded
audio and video, broadcast radio and television, and audio conferencing
technologies.[30]
The term
"computer-assisted learning" (CAL) has been increasingly used to
describe the use of technology in teaching. Classrooms of the 21st century
contain interactive white boards, tablets, mp3 players, laptops, etc. Wiki sites are another tool
teachers can implement into CAL curricula for students to understand
communication and collaboration efforts of group work through electronic means.[citation needed] Teachers are encouraged to
embed these technological devices and services in the curriculum in order to
enhance students learning and meet the needs of various types of learners.
Adult learning, or adult
education, is the practice of training and developing skills in
adults. It is also sometimes referred to as andragogy (the art and science of
helping adults learn).Adult education has become common in many countries. It
takes on many forms, ranging from formal class-based learning to self-directed
learning and e-learning. A number
of career specific courses such as veterinary assisting, medical billing
and coding, real
estate license, bookkeeping and many more are now
available to students through theInternet.
With the boom of
information from availability of knowledge through means of internet and other
modern low cost information exchange mechanisms people are beginning to take an
attitude of Lifelong learning.
To make knowledge and self improvement a lifelong focus as opposed
to the more traditional view that knowledge and in particular value creating
trade skills are to be learned just exclusively in youth.
There has been work on
learning styles over the last two decades. Dunn and Dunn[31] focused on identifying
relevant stimuli that may influence learning and manipulating the school
environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli[32] recommended varying
teaching strategies. Howard Gardner[33] identified individual
talents or aptitudes in his Multiple Intelligences theories. Based on the
works of Jung,
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey Temperament Sorter[34] focused on understanding
how people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this
affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning
environment. The work of David Kolb and Anthony Gregorc's
Type Delineator[35] follows a similar but more
simplified approach.
It is currently fashionable
to divide education into different learning "modes". The learning
modalities[36] are probably the most
common:
·
Visual:
learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned.
·
Auditory:
learning based on listening to instructions/information.
·
Kinesthetic:
learning based on hands-on work and engaging in activities.
Although it is claimed
that, depending on their preferred learning modality, different teaching
techniques have different levels of effectiveness,[37] recent research has argued
"there is no adequate evidence base to justify incorporating learning
styles assessments into general educational practice."[38]
A consequence of this
theory is that effective teaching should present a variety of teaching methods
which cover all three learning modalities so that different students have equal
opportunities to learn in a way that is effective for them.[39] Guy Claxton has questioned
the extent that learning styles such as VAK are helpful,
particularly as they can have a tendency to label children and therefore
restrict learning.[40][41]
_Madagascar.jpg)
Instruction is the
facilitation of another's learning. Instructors in primary and secondary
institutions are often called teachers, and they
direct the education of students and might draw on many subjects like reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. Instructors
in post-secondary institutions might be called teachers,
instructors, or professors,
depending on the type of institution; and they primarily teach only their
specific discipline. Studies from the United States suggest that the quality of
teachers is the single most important factor affecting student performance, and
that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies
in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible.[42][43] With the passing of NCLB in
the United States (No Child Left Behind), teachers must be highly qualified. A
popular way to gauge teaching performance is to use student evaluations of
teachers (SETS), but these evaluations have been criticized for being
counterproductive to learning and inaccurate due to student bias.[44]
Education theory can refer to either a
normative or a descriptive theory of education. In the first case, a theory
means a postulation about what ought to be. It provides the "goals, norms,
and standards for conducting the process of education."[45] In the second case, it
means "an hypothesis or set of hypotheses that have been verified by
observation and experiment."[46] A descriptive theory of
education can be thought of as a conceptual scheme that ties together various
"otherwise discrete particulars ... For example, a cultural theory of
education shows how the concept of culture can be used to organize and unify
the variety of facts about how and what people learn."[47] Likewise, for example,
there is the behaviorist theory of education that comes from educational psychology and the functionalist theory of education that comes fromsociology of education.[48]
It has been argued that
high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high
levels of economic growth.[49]Empirical
analyses tend to support the theoretical prediction that poor countries should
grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting edge
technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. However, technology
transfer requires knowledgeable managers and engineers
who are able to operate new machines or production practices borrowed from the
leader in order to close the gap through imitation. Therefore, a country's
ability to learn from the leader is a function of its stock of "human capital".
Recent study of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have stressed the
importance of fundamental economic institutions[50] and the role of cognitive
skills.[51]
At the individual level,
there is a large literature, generally related back to the work of Jacob Mincer,[52] on how earnings are related
to the schooling and other human capital of the individual. This work has
motivated a large number of studies, but is also controversial. The chief
controversies revolve around how to interpret the impact of schooling.[53][54]
Economists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis famously
argued in 1976 that there was a fundamental conflict in American schooling
between the egalitarian goal of democratic
participation and the inequalities implied by the continued profitability of
capitalist production on the other.[55]
Education The history of education
according to Dieter Lenzen, president of the Freie Universität Berlin 1994, "began either
millions of years ago or at the end of 1770". Education as a science
cannot be separated from the educational traditions that existed before. Adults
trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need
to master and eventually pass on. The evolution of culture, and human beings as
a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge. In pre-literate
societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling
continued from one generation to the next. Oral language developed into written
symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of knowledge that could be preserved
and passed soon increased exponentially. When cultures began to extend their
knowledge beyond the basic skills of communicating, trading, gathering food,
religious practices, etc., formal education, and schooling, eventually
followed. Schooling in this sense was already in place in Egypt between 3000
and 500BC.[citation needed]
The first large established
university is thought to be Nalanda established in 427 A.D in
India.[56][unreliable source?] At its peak, the university
attracted scholars and students from as far away as Tibet, China, Greece, and
Persia. The first university establishments in the western world are thought to
be University of Bologna (founded in 1088) and later Oxford university (founded around 1096).
Matteo
Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi (right) in the Chinese
edition of Euclid's
Elementspublished in 1607.
In the West, Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century
BC. Plato was the Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician and writer of philosophical
dialogues who founded the Academy in Athens which was the first
institution of higher learning in the Western world.
Inspired by the admonition of his mentor, Socrates, prior to
his unjust execution that "the unexamined life is not worth living",
Plato and his student, the political scientist Aristotle, helped
lay the foundations of Western
philosophy and science.[57]
The city of Alexandria in Egypt was founded in
330BC, became the successor to Athens as the intellectual cradle of the Western World. The
city hosted such leading lights as the mathematician Euclid and anatomist Herophilus;
constructed the great Library of Alexandria; and translated theHebrew Bible into Greek (called
the Septuagint for it was the work of 70
translators). Greek civilization was subsumed within the Roman Empire. While
the Roman Empire and its new Christian religion survived in an increasingly
Hellenised form in the Byzantine Empire centered at Constantinople
in the East, Western civilization suffered a collapse of literacy and
organization following the fall of Rome in AD 476.[58]
In the East, Confucius (551-479), of the State of Lu, was
China's most influential ancient philosopher, whose educational outlook
continues to influence the societies of China and neighbours like Korea, Japan
and Vietnam. He gathered disciples and searched in vain for a ruler who would
adopt his ideals for good governance, but his Analects were written down by
followers and have continued to influence education in the East into the modern
era.
In Western Europe after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church emerged as the unifying
force. Initially the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe,
the church established Cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as
centers of advanced education. Some of these ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of
Europe's modern universities.[58] During the High Middle
Ages, Chartres
Cathedraloperated the famous and influential Chartres
Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom
were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of
enquiry and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers,
including Thomas Aquinas of the University
of Naples, Robert
Grosseteste of the University
of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific
experimentation;[59] and Saint Albert the Great, a
pioneer of biological field research[60] The University of Bologne is considered the oldest
continually operating university.
Elsewhere during the Middle
Ages, Islamic science and mathematics flourished under the
Islamic caliphate established across the
Middle East, extending from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indus in the east and to the Almoravid Dynasty and Mali Empire in the south.
The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient
Greek and Roman civilizations. Around 1450, Johannes
Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed
works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of
education in philosophy, religion, arts and sciences spread out across the
globe. Missionaries and scholars also brought back new ideas from other
civilisations — as with the Jesuit China missions who played a significant
role in the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and
the West, translating Western works like Euclids Elements for Chinese scholars and
the thoughts of Confucius for Western audiences. The Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more
secular educational outlook in the West.
Nowadays some kind of
education is compulsory to all people in most countries. Due to population
growth and the proliferation of compulsory education, UNESCO has calculated that in the
next 30 years more people will receive formal education than in all of
human history thus far.[61]
John Locke's work Some Thoughts Concerning Education was written in 1693 and
still reflects traditional education priorities in the Western world.
As an academic field,
philosophy of education is a "the philosophical study of education and its
problems ... its central subject matter is education, and its methods are
those of philosophy".[62] "The philosophy of
education may be either the philosophy of the process of education or the
philosophy of the discipline of education. That is, it may be part of the
discipline in the sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods, or
results of the process of educating or being educated; or it may be
metadisciplinary in the sense of being concerned with the concepts, aims, and
methods of the discipline."[63] As such, it is both part of
the field of education and a field ofapplied
philosophy, drawing from fields of metaphysics, epistemology, axiology and the philosophical
approaches (speculative, prescriptive, and/or analytic)
to address questions in and about pedagogy, education policy,
and curriculum, as well
as the process oflearning, to name a few.[64] For example, it might study
what constitutes upbringing and education, the values and norms revealed
through upbringing and educational practices, the limits and legitimization of
education as an academic discipline, and the relation betweeneducation theory and practice.
Chesterton said, "Modern
education means handing down the customs of the minority, and rooting out the
customs of the majority."[65]
Individual purposes for
pursuing education can vary. However, in early age, the focus is generally
around developing basic Interpersonal communication and literacy skills in order to further
ability to learn more complex skills and subjects. After acquiring these basic
abilities, education is commonly focused towards individuals gaining necessary
knowledge and skills to improve ability to create value and alivelihood for themselves.[66] Satisfying personal
curiosities (Education for the sake of itself) and desire for personal
development, to "better oneself" without career based
reasons for doing so are also common reasons why people pursue education and
use schools.[67]
A
class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes
for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation rates of students from low income families.[68]
Educational psychology is the study of how humans
learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions,
the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations.
Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school
psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are
likely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas
practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school
psychologists. Educational psychology is concerned with the
processes of educational attainment in the general population and in
sub-populations such as gifted children and those with
specific disabilities.
Educational psychology can
in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is
informed primarily by psychology, bearing
a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational
psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialties within educational
studies, including instructional
design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom
management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes
to cognitive science and the learning sciences.
In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed
within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of
representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology
textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006).
The sociology of education is the study of how social
institutions and forces affect educational processes and outcomes, and vice
versa. By many, education is understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps,
achieving greater equality and acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent
1994). Learners may be motivated by aspirations for progress and betterment.
Learners can also be motivated by their interest in the subject area or
specific skill they are trying to learn. In fact, learner-responsibility
education models are driven by the interest of the learner in the topic to be
studied.[44]
Education is perceived as a
place where children can develop according to their unique needs and
potentialities.[69] The purpose of education
can be to develop every individual to their full potential. The understanding
of the goals and means of educational socializationprocesses
differs according to the sociological paradigm used.
Universal Primary Education is one of the eight
international Millennium Development Goals, towards which progress
has been made in the past decade, though barriers still remain.[70] Securing charitable funding
from prospective donors is one particularly persistent problem. Researchers at
the Overseas Development Institute have indicated that the
main obstacles to receiving more funding for education include conflicting
donor priorities, an immature aid architecture, and a lack of evidence and
advocacy for the issue.[70] Additionally, Transparency International has identified corruption in the education sector as
a major stumbling block to achieving Universal Primary Education in Africa.[71] Furthermore, demand in the
developing world for improved educational access is not as high as foreigners
have expected. Indigenous governments are reluctant to take on the recurrent
costs involved. There is economic pressure from those parents who prefer their
children to earn money in the short term rather than work towards the long-term
benefits of education.
A study conducted by the UNESCO International Institute
for Educational Planning indicates that stronger
capacities in educational planning and management may have an important
spill-over effect on the system as a whole.[72] Sustainable capacity
development requires complex interventions at the institutional, organizational
and individual levels that could be based on some foundational principles:
·
national leadership and ownership should be the
touchstone of any intervention;
·
strategies must be context relevant and context specific;[clarification needed]
·
they should embrace an integrated set of complementary
interventions, though implementation may need to proceed in steps;[clarification needed]
·
partners should commit to a long-term investment in
capacity development, while working towards some short-term achievements;
·
outside intervention should be conditional on an impact
assessment of national capacities at various levels.
Russia has more academic graduates
than any other country in Europe. (Note, chart does not include
population statistics.)
[when?]
·
Removal of a certain percentage of students for
improvisation of academics (usually practiced in schools, after 10th grade)
Technology plays an
increasingly significant role in improving access to education for people
living in impoverished areas and developing
countries. There are charities dedicated to providing
infrastructures through which the disadvantaged may access educational
materials, for example, the One
Laptop per Child project.
The OLPC
foundation, a group out of MIT Media Lab and supported by several
major corporations, has a stated mission to develop a$100 laptop for delivering educational
software. The laptops were widely available as of 2008. They are
sold at cost or given away based on donations.
In Africa, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) has launched an
"e-school program"
to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment,
learning materials and internet access within 10 years.[73] An International
Development Agency project called nabuur.com,[74] started with the support of
former American President Bill Clinton, uses
the Internet to allow co-operation by
individuals on issues of social development.
India is developing technologies
that will bypass land-based telephone and Internet infrastructure
to deliver distance learning directly to its students.
In 2004, the Indian Space Research Organization launched EDUSAT, a communications satellite providing
access to educational materials that can reach more of the country's population
at a greatly reduced cost.[75]
Education is becoming
increasingly international. The most represented case is the spread of mass
schooling. Mass schooling has implanted the fundamental concepts that everyone
has a right to be educated regardless of his/her cultural background and gender
differences. The system has also promoted the global rules and norms of how the
school should operate and what is education.[76]Though the
system can have variations in local, regional, and country level, the
similarities — in systems or even in ideas — that schools share also
enable the exchange among students at all levels which are also playing an
increasingly important role in globalization process. In Europe, for example,
the Socrates-Erasmus Program[77] stimulates exchanges across
European universities. Also, the Soros Foundation[78] provides many opportunities
for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Programs such as theInternational Baccalaureate have contributed to the
internationalization of education. Some scholars argue that, regardless of whether
one system is considered better or worse than another, experiencing a different
way of education can often be considered to be the most important, enriching
element of an international learning experience.[79] The global campus online, led by American
universities, allows free access to class materials and lecture files recorded
during the actual classes. This facilitates the globalization of education.
·
Schools
·
Pedagogy
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1 comment:
Thanks for the information
General knowledge
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