Technology
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encyclopedia
By the mid 20th century, humans had
achieved a mastery of technology sufficient to leave the atmosphere of the
Earth for the first time and explore space.
The word technology refers to the
making, modification, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines,
techniques, crafts,systems, and methods of organization, in order
to solve a problem, improve a preexisting solution to a problem, achieve a
goal, handle an applied input/output relation or perform a specific function.
It can also refer to the collection of such tools, including machinery,
modifications, arrangements and procedures. Technologies significantly affect
human as well as other animal species' ability to control and adapt to their
natural environments. The term can either be applied generally or to specific
areas: examples include construction technology, medical
technology, andinformation
technology.
The human species' use of technology began with the
conversion of natural resources into simple tools. Theprehistorical discovery of the ability to control fire increased the
available sources of food and the invention of thewheel helped humans
in travelling in and controlling their environment. Recent technological
developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have
lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed
humans to interact freely on a global scale. However, not all technology has
been used for peaceful purposes; the development of weapons of
ever-increasing destructive power has progressed throughout history, from clubs tonuclear weapons.
Technology has affected society and its
surroundings in a number of ways. In many societies, technology has helped
develop more advanced economies (including
today's global economy) and has allowed the rise of a leisure class. Many
technological processes produce unwanted by-products, known as pollution, and
deplete natural resources, to the detriment of the Earth and its environment.
Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and new technology often
raises new ethical questions. Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of
human productivity, a term originally applied only to machines, and the
challenge of traditional norms.
Philosophical debates have arisen over the present and
future use of technology in society, with disagreements over whether technology
improves the human
condition or worsens it. Neo-Luddism, anarcho-primitivism,
and similar movements criticise the pervasiveness of technology in the modern
world, opining that it harms the environment and alienates people; proponents
of ideologies such as transhumanism and techno-progressivism view continued
technological progress as beneficial to society and the human condition.
Indeed, until recently, it was believed that the development of technology was
restricted only to human beings, but recent scientific studies indicate that
other primates and certain dolphin communities
have developed simple tools and learned to pass their knowledge to other
generations.
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Definition and usage
The invention of the printing press made it
possible forscientists and politicians to communicate
their ideas with ease, leading to the Age
of Enlightenment; an example of technology as a cultural force.
The use of the term technology has changed
significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was
uncommon in English, and usually referred to the description or study of the useful arts.[1] The term was
often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (chartered in 1861).[2] "Technology"
rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution. The meanings of
technology changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists,
beginning with Thorstein
Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept ofTechnik into
"technology." In German and other European languages, a distinction
exists between Technik and Technologiethat is absent
in English, as both terms are usually translated as "technology." By
the 1930s, "technology" referred not to the study of the industrial
arts, but to the industrial arts themselves.[3] In 1937, the
American sociologist Read Bain wrote that "technology includes all tools,
machines, utensils, weapons, instruments, housing, clothing, communicating and
transporting devices and the skills by which we produce and use them."[4] Bain's
definition remains common among scholars today, especially social scientists.
But equally prominent is the definition of technology as applied science,
especially among scientists and engineers, although most social scientists who
study technology reject this definition.[5] More recently,
scholars have borrowed from European philosophers of "technique" to
extend the meaning of technology to various forms of instrumental reason, as in
Foucault's work on technologies of the self ("techniques
de soi").
Dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of
definitions. The Merriam-Webster dictionary
offers a definition of the term: "the practical application of knowledge
especially in a particular area" and "a capability given by the
practical application of knowledge".[6] Ursula Franklin, in
her 1989 "Real World of Technology" lecture, gave another definition
of the concept; it is "practice, the way we do things around here".[7] The term is
often used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer
electronics, rather than technology as a whole.[8] Bernard Stiegler, in Technics
and Time, 1, defines technology in two ways: as "the pursuit of
life by means other than life", and as "organized inorganic
matter."[9]
Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities,
both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical
effort in order to achieve some value. In this usage, technology refers to
tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems. It is a far-reaching
term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle
accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material; virtual
technology, such as computer
software and business methods,
fall under this definition of technology.[10]
The word "technology" can also be used to refer
to a collection of techniques. In this context, it is the current state of
humanity's knowledge of how to combine resources to produce desired products,
to solve problems, fulfill needs, or satisfy wants; it includes technical
methods, skills, processes, techniques, tools and raw materials. When combined
with another term, such as "medical technology" or "space
technology", it refers to the state of the respective field's knowledge
and tools. "State-of-the-art technology"
refers to the high
technology available to humanity in any field.
.jpg)
The invention of integrated circuits
and the microprocessor (here, an Intel 4004chip from
1971) led to the moderncomputer
revolution.
Technology can be viewed as an activity that forms or
changes culture.[11] Additionally,
technology is the application of math, science, and the arts for the benefit of
life as it is known. A modern example is the rise of communicationtechnology,
which has lessened barriers to human interaction and, as a result, has helped
spawn new subcultures; the rise of cyberculture has, at its
basis, the development of the Internet and the computer.[12] Not all
technology enhances culture in a creative way; technology can also help
facilitate political
oppression and war via tools such as guns. As a cultural activity,
technology predates both science and engineering, each of
which formalize some aspects of technological endeavor.
Science, engineering and technology
The distinction between science, engineering and
technology is not always clear. Science is the reasoned investigation
or study of phenomena, aimed at discovering enduring principles among elements
of the phenomenal world by
employing formal techniques such
as the scientific
method.[13] Technologies
are not usually exclusively products of science, because they have to satisfy
requirements such as utility, usability and safety.
Engineering is the goal-oriented process of
designing and making tools and systems to exploit natural phenomena for
practical human means, often (but not always) using results and techniques from
science. The development of technology may draw upon many fields of knowledge,
including scientific, engineering,mathematical, linguistic, and historical knowledge, to
achieve some practical result.
Technology is often a consequence of science and
engineering — although technology as a human activity precedes the two fields.
For example, science might study the flow of electrons in electrical
conductors, by using already-existing tools and knowledge. This
new-found knowledge may then be used by engineers to create new tools and
machines, such as semiconductors, computers, and other
forms of advanced technology. In this sense, scientists and engineers may both
be considered technologists; the three fields are often considered as one for
the purposes of research and reference.[14]
The exact relations between science and technology in particular
have been debated by scientists, historians, and policymakers in the late 20th
century, in part because the debate can inform the funding of basic and applied
science. In the immediate wake of World War II, for
example, in the United States it was widely considered that technology was
simply "applied science" and that to fund basic science was to reap
technological results in due time. An articulation of this philosophy could be
found explicitly in Vannevar
Bush's treatise on postwar science policy, Science—The
Endless Frontier: "New products, new industries, and more jobs require continuous additions
to knowledge of the laws of nature ... This essential new knowledge can be
obtained only through basic scientific research." In the late-1960s,
however, this view came under direct attack, leading towards initiatives to
fund science for specific tasks (initiatives resisted by the scientific
community). The issue remains contentious—though most analysts resist the model
that technology simply is a result of scientific research.[15][16]
History
Paleolithic
(2.5 million – 10,000 BC)
The use of tools by early humans was partly a
process of discovery and of evolution. Early humans evolved from aspecies of foraging hominids which were
already bipedal,[17] with a brain
mass approximately one third of modern humans.[18] Tool use
remained relatively unchanged for most of early human history. Approximately
50,000 years ago, the use of tools and complex
set of behaviors emerged, believed by many
archaeologists to be connected to the emergence of fully modern language.[19]
Stone tools
Human ancestors have been using stone and other tools
since long before the emergence of Homo sapiens approximately
200,000 years ago.[20] The earliest
methods of stone
tool making, known as the Oldowan "industry",
date back to at least 2.3 million years ago,[21] with the
earliest direct evidence of tool usage found in Ethiopia within the Great Rift Valley, dating back to 2.5 million years
ago.[22] This era of
stone tool use is called the Paleolithic, or "Old
stone age", and spans all of human history up to the development of agriculture approximately
12,000 years ago.
To make a stone tool, a "core" of hard
stone with specific flaking properties (such as flint) was struck with a hammerstone. This
flaking produced a sharp edge on the core stone as well as on the flakes,
either of which could be used as tools, primarily in the form of choppers or scrapers.[23] These tools
greatly aided the early humans in their hunter-gatherer lifestyle to
perform a variety of tasks including butchering carcasses (and breaking bones
to get at the marrow);
chopping wood; cracking open nuts; skinning an animal for its hide; and even forming other tools out of
softer materials such as bone and wood.[24]
The earliest stone tools were crude, being little more
than a fractured rock. In the Acheulian era, beginning
approximately 1.65 million years ago, methods of working these stone into
specific shapes, such as hand
axes emerged. The Middle
Paleolithic, approximately 300,000 years ago, saw the introduction
of the prepared-core technique, where multiple blades could
be rapidly formed from a single core stone.[23] The Upper Paleolithic,
beginning approximately 40,000 years ago, saw the introduction ofpressure
flaking, where a wood, bone, or antler punch could be used
to shape a stone very finely.[25]
Fire
The discovery and utilization of fire, a simple energy source with
many profound uses, was a turning point in the technological evolution of
humankind.[26] The exact date
of its discovery is not known; evidence of burnt animal bones at the Cradle
of Humankind suggests that the domestication of fire occurred before
1,000,000 BC;[27] scholarly
consensus indicates that Homo
erectus had controlled fire by between 500,000 BC and
400,000 BC.[28][29] Fire, fueled
with wood and charcoal, allowed
early humans to cook their food to increase its digestibility, improving its
nutrient value and broadening the number of foods that could be eaten.[30]
Clothing and shelter
Other technological advances made during the Paleolithic
era were clothing and shelter;
the adoption of both technologies cannot be dated exactly, but they were a key
to humanity's progress. As the Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became
more sophisticated and more elaborate; as early as 380,000 BC, humans were
constructing temporary wood huts.[31][32] Clothing,
adapted from the fur and hides of hunted animals, helped humanity expand into
colder regions; humans began to migrate out of Africa
by 200,000 BC and into other continents, such as Eurasia.[33]
Neolithic
through classical antiquity (10,000BC – 300AD)
An array of Neolithic artifacts,
including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools.
Man's technological ascent began in earnest in what is
known as the Neolithic period
("New stone age"). The invention of polished stone axes was a major
advance because it allowed forest clearance on a large scale to create farms.
The discovery of agriculture allowed for the
feeding of larger populations, and the transition to a sedentist lifestyle
increased the number of children that could be simultaneously raised, as young
children no longer needed to be carried, as was the case with the nomadic
lifestyle. Additionally, children could contribute labor to the raising of
crops more readily than they could to the hunter-gatherer lifestyle.[34][35]
With this increase in population and availability of
labor came an increase in labor specialization.[36] What triggered
the progression from early Neolithic villages to the first cities, such as Uruk, and the first civilizations, such as Sumer, is not specifically known; however, the
emergence of increasingly hierarchical social
structures, the specialization of labor, trade and war amongst adjacent
cultures, and the need for collective action to overcome environmental
challenges, such as the building of dikes and reservoirs, are all
thought to have played a role.[37]
Metal tools
Continuing improvements led to the furnace and bellows and provided
the ability to smelt and forge native metals
(naturally occurring in relatively pure form).[38]Gold, copper, silver, and lead, were such early metals. The advantages
of copper tools over stone, bone, and wooden tools were quickly apparent to
early humans, and native copper was probably used from near the beginning of Neolithic times (about
8000 BC).[39] Native copper
does not naturally occur in large amounts, but copper ores are quite common and
some of them produce metal easily when burned in wood or charcoal fires.
Eventually, the working of metals led to the discovery of alloys such as bronze and brass (about 4000
BC). The first uses of iron alloys such as steel dates to around
1400 BC.
Energy and transport
Meanwhile, humans were learning to harness other forms of
energy. The earliest known use of wind power is the sailboat.[40]The
earliest record of a ship under sail is shown on an Egyptian pot dating back to
3200 BC.[41] From
prehistoric times, Egyptians probably used the power of the Nile annual floods
to irrigate their lands, gradually learning to regulate much of it through
purposely built irrigation channels and 'catch' basins. Similarly, the early
peoples of Mesopotamia, the Sumerians, learned to use the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers for much the same purposes. But more extensive use of wind and water
(and even human) power required another invention.
According to archaeologists, the wheel was invented
around 4000 B.C. probably independently and nearly-simultaneously in
Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq), the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture) and
Central Europe. Estimates on when this may have occurred range from 5500 to
3000 B.C., with most experts putting it closer to 4000 B.C. The oldest
artifacts with drawings that depict wheeled carts date from about 3000 B.C.;
however, the wheel may have been in use for millennia before these drawings
were made. There is also evidence from the same period of time that wheels were
used for the production of pottery. (Note that
the original potter's wheel was probably not a wheel, but rather an irregularly
shaped slab of flat wood with a small hollowed or pierced area near the center
and mounted on a peg driven into the earth. It would have been rotated by
repeated tugs by the potter or his assistant.) More recently, the oldest-known
wooden wheel in the world was found in the Ljubljana marshes of Slovenia.[42]
The invention of the wheel revolutionized activities as
disparate as transportation, war, and the production of pottery (for which it
may have been first used). It did not take long to discover that wheeled wagons
could be used to carry heavy loads and fast (rotary) potters' wheels enabled
early mass production of pottery. But it was the use of the wheel as a
transformer of energy (through water wheels, windmills, and even treadmills)
that revolutionized the application of nonhuman power sources.
Medieval
and modern history (300 AD —)
Main articles: Medieval
technology, Renaissance technology, Industrial Revolution, Second Industrial Revolution, Productivity improving
technologies (historical), and Information Technology
Innovations continued through the Middle Ages with
innovations such as silk, the horse collar and horseshoes in the first
few hundred years after the fall of theRoman Empire. Medieval
technology saw the use of simple machines (such as the lever, the screw, and the pulley) being combined to form more
complicated tools, such as the wheelbarrow, windmills and clocks. The Renaissance brought forth
many of these innovations, including the printing press (which
facilitated the greater communication of knowledge), and technology became
increasingly associated with science, beginning a
cycle of mutual advancement. The advancements in technology in this era allowed
a more steady supply of food, followed by the wider availability of consumer
goods.
Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution was a period of
great technological discovery, particularly in the areas of agriculture, manufacturing, mining, metallurgy and transport, driven by
the discovery of steam
power. Technology later took another step with the harnessing of electricity to create such
innovations as the electric
motor,light
bulb and countless others. Scientific advancement and the
discovery of new concepts later allowed for powered flight, and advancements in medicine, chemistry, physics and engineering. The
rise in technology has led to the construction ofskyscrapers and large cities
whose inhabitants rely on automobiles or other
powered transit for transportation. Communication was also greatly improved
with the invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio and television. The late
19th and early 20th centuries saw a revolution in transportation with the
invention of the steam-powered
ship, train, airplane, andautomobile.
The 20th century brought a host of innovations. In physics, the
discovery ofnuclear
fission has led to both nuclear weapons and nuclear power. Computerswere also
invented and later miniaturized utilizing transistors and integrated
circuits. The technology behind got called information technology, and these advancements
subsequently led to the creation of the Internet, which
ushered in the current Information
Age. Humans have also been able to explore spacewith satellites (later used for telecommunication)
and in manned missions going all the way to the moon. In medicine, this era
brought innovations such as open-heart surgery and later stem
cell therapy along with new medications and treatments.
Complex manufacturing and construction techniques and
organizations are needed to construct and maintain these new technologies, and
entire industries have arisen to
support and develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools.
Modern technology increasingly relies on training and education — their
designers, builders, maintainers, and users often require sophisticated general
and specific training. Moreover, these technologies have become so complex that
entire fields have been created to support them, including engineering, medicine, and computer science,
and other fields have been made more complex, such as construction, transportation and architecture.
Technology and philosophy
Technicism
Generally, technicism is a reliance
or confidence in technology as a benefactor of society. Taken to extreme,
technicism is the belief that humanity will ultimately be able to control the
entirety of existence using technology. In other words, human beings will
someday be able to master all problems and possibly even control the future
using technology. Some, such as Stephen V. Monsma,[43] connect these
ideas to the abdication of religion as a higher moral authority.
Optimism
Optimistic assumptions are made by proponents of
ideologies such as transhumanism and singularitarianism,
which view technological development as generally
having beneficial effects for the society and the human condition. In these
ideologies, technological development is morally good. Some critics see these
ideologies as examples of scientism and techno-utopianism and fear the
notion of human
enhancement and technological singularity which they
support. Some have described Karl Marx as a techno-optimist.[44]
Skepticism
and critics of technology
On the somewhat skeptical side are certain philosophers
like Herbert
Marcuse and John Zerzan, who
believe that technological societies are inherently flawed. They suggest that
the inevitable result of such a society is to become evermore technological at
the cost of freedom and psychological health.
Many, such as the Luddites and prominent philosopher Martin Heidegger,
hold serious, although not entirely deterministic reservations, about
technology (see "The Question Concerning Technology[45])".
According to Heidegger scholars Hubert Dreyfus and Charles
Spinosa, "Heidegger does not oppose technology. He hopes to reveal the
essence of technology in a way that 'in no way confines us to a stultified
compulsion to push on blindly with technology or, what comes to the same thing,
to rebel helplessly against it.' Indeed, he promises that 'when we once open
ourselves expressly to the essence of technology, we find ourselves
unexpectedly taken into a freeing claim.'[46]"
What this entails is a more complex relationship to technology than either
techno-optimists or techno-pessimists tend to allow.[47]
Some of the most poignant criticisms of technology are
found in what are now considered to be dystopian literary classics, for example Aldous Huxley's Brave New World and other
writings, Anthony
Burgess's A
Clockwork Orange, and George Orwell's Nineteen
Eighty-Four. And, in Faust by Goethe, Faust's selling his soul to the devil
in return for power over the physical world, is also often interpreted as a
metaphor for the adoption of industrial technology. More recently, modern works
of science fiction, such as those by Philip K. Dick and William Gibson, and
films (e.g. Blade
Runner, Ghost
in the Shell) project highly ambivalent or cautionary attitudes
toward technology's impact on human society and identity.
The late cultural critic Neil Postman distinguished
tool-using societies from technological societies and, finally, what he called
"technopolies," that is, societies that are dominated by the ideology
of technological and scientific progress, to the exclusion or harm of other
cultural practices, values and world-views.[48]
Darin Barney has written about technology's impact on
practices of citizenship and democratic
culture, suggesting that technology can be construed as (1) an object of
political debate, (2) a means or medium of discussion, and (3) a setting for
democratic deliberation and citizenship. As a setting for democratic culture,
Barney suggests that technology tends to make ethical questions,
including the question of what a good life consists in, nearly impossible,
because they already give an answer to the question: a good life is one that
includes the use of more and more technology.[49]
Nikolas
Kompridis has also written about the
dangers of new technology, such as genetic
engineering, nanotechnology, synthetic biology and robotics. He warns
that these technologies introduce unprecedented new challenges to human beings,
including the possibility of the permanent alteration of our biological nature.
These concerns are shared by other philosophers, scientists and public
intellectuals who have written about similar issues (e.g. Francis Fukuyama,Jürgen Habermas, William Joy, and Michael Sandel).[50]
Another prominent critic of technology is Hubert Dreyfus, who
has published books On the Internet and What Computers
Still Can't Do.
Another, more infamous anti-technological treatise is Industrial Society and Its Future, written by Theodore
Kaczynski (aka The Unabomber) and
printed in several major newspapers (and later books) as part of an effort to
end his bombing campaign of the techno-industrial infrastructure.
Appropriate
technology
The notion of appropriate technology, however, was developed in the
20th century (e.g., see the work of Jacques Ellul) to
describe situations where it was not desirable to use very new technologies or
those that required access to some centralized infrastructure or parts or
skills imported from elsewhere. The eco-villagemovement
emerged in part due to this concern.
Technology and competitiveness
In 1983 a classified program was initiated in the US intelligence community to reverse the
US declining economic and military competitiveness. The program,Project Socrates,
used all source intelligence to review competitiveness worldwide for all forms
of competition to determine the source of the US decline. What Project Socrates
determined was that technology exploitation is the foundation of all competitive advantage and that the
source of the US declining competitiveness was the fact that decision-making
through the US both in the private and public sectors had switched from
decision making that was based on technology exploitation (i.e.,
technology-based planning) to decision making that was based on money
exploitation (i.e., economic-based planning) at the end of World War II.
Technology is properly defined as any application of
science to accomplish a function. The science can be leading edge or well
established and the function can have high visibility or be significantly more
mundane but it is all technology, and its exploitation is the foundation of all
competitive advantage.
Technology-based planning is what was used to build the
US industrial giants before WWII (e.g., Dow, DuPont, GM) and it what was
used to transform the US into a superpower. It was
not economic-based planning.
Project Socrates determined that to rebuild US
competitiveness, decision making throughout the US had to readopt
technology-based planning. Project Socrates also determined that countries like
China and India had continued executing technology-based (while the US took its
detour into economic-based) planning, and as a result had considerable advanced
the process and were using it to build themselves into superpowers. To rebuild
US competitiveness the US decision-makers needed adopt a form of
technology-based planning that was far more advanced than that used by China
and India.
Project Socrates determined that technology-based
planning makes an evolutionary leap forward every few hundred years and the
next evolutionary leap, the Automated Innovation Revolution, was poised to
occur. In the Automated Innovation Revolution the process for determining how
to acquire and utilize technology for a competitive advantage (which includes
R&D) is automated so that it can be executed with unprecedented speed,
efficiency and agility.
Project Socrates developed the means for automated
innovation so that the US could lead the Automated Innovation Revolution in
order to rebuild and maintain the country's economic competitiveness for many
generations.[51][52][53]
Other animal species
This adult gorilla uses a branch
as awalking stick to gauge the
water's depth; an example of technology usage by non-human primates.
The use of basic technology is also a feature of other
animal species apart from humans. These include primates such as chimpanzees, some dolphin communities,[54][55] and crows.[56][57] Considering a
more generic perspective of technology as ethology of active environmental
conditioning and control, we can also refer to animal examples such as beavers
and their dams, or bees and their honeycombs.
The ability to make and use tools was once considered a
defining characteristic of the genus Homo.[58] However, the
discovery of tool construction among chimpanzees and related primates has
discarded the notion of the use of technology as unique to humans. For example,
researchers have observed wild chimpanzees utilising tools for foraging: some
of the tools used include leaf sponges, termite fishing probes, pestles and levers.[59] West Africanchimpanzees also use stone
hammers and anvils for cracking nuts,[60] as do capuchin monkeys of Boa
Vista, Brazil.[61]
Future technology
Theories of technology often attempt
to predict the future of technology based on the high technology and science of
the time.
See also
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Economics of
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References
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Further reading
·
Ambrose, Stanley H. (2001-03-02). "Paleolithic Technology and Human Evolution" (PDF). Science (Science)291 (5509):
1748–53. Bibcode:2001Sci...291.1748A. doi:10.1126/science.1059487. PMID 11249821.
Retrieved 2007-03-10.
·
Huesemann,
M.H., and J.A. Huesemann (2011). Technofix: Why Technology Won’t Save Us or the Environment.New Society Publishers, ISBN 0865717044.
·
Kremer, Michael (1993).
"Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to
1990". Quarterly
Journal of Economics (The MIT Press) 108 (3):
681–716. doi:10.2307/2118405. JSTOR 2118405.
·
Kevin Kelly. What Technology Wants. New York, Viking
Press, October 14, 2010, hardcover, 416 pages. ISBN 978-0-670-02215-1
·
Rhodes,
R. (2000). Visions of Technology:
A Century of Vital Debate about Machines, Systems, and the Human World. Simon and Schuster, ISBN 0684863111.
·
Teich,
A.H. (2008). Technology and the
Future. Wadsworth Publishing,
11th edition, ISBN 0495570524.
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